Ma mua o ka hoʻopau ʻana o nā maʻi i kahi 3 biliona a ʻoi aku paha nā maʻi, ua kōkua kēia lāʻau i ke kūkulu ʻana i ʻAmelika ʻoihana. I mea e hoʻihoʻi ai i ko lākou nani i nalowale, pono paha kākou e apo a hoʻoponopono i ke kūlohelohe.
I kekahi manawa i ka makahiki 1989, ua loaʻa iā Herbert Darling kahi kelepona: Ua haʻi aku kekahi mea hahai holoholona iā ia ua hālāwai ʻo ia me kahi lāʻau chestnut ʻAmelika kiʻekiʻe ma ka ʻāina o Darling ma ke awāwa ʻo Zor ma ke komohana o New York. Ua ʻike ʻo Darling ʻo nā chestnut kekahi o nā lāʻau koʻikoʻi loa ma ia wahi. Ua ʻike pū ʻo ia ua aneane hoʻopau kahi fungus make i nā ʻano no hoʻokahi kenekulia a me ka hapa. I kona lohe ʻana i ka hōʻike a ka mea hahai holoholona e pili ana i ka ʻike ʻana i kahi chestnut ola, ʻelua kapuaʻi ka lōʻihi o ke kumu o ka chestnut a hiki i kahi hale ʻelima papahele, ua kānalua ʻo ia. "ʻAʻole maopopo iaʻu inā manaʻoʻiʻo wau ua ʻike ʻo ia i ke ʻano o ia mea," wahi a Darling.
I ka loaʻa ʻana o ka lāʻau iā Darling, ua like ia me ka nānā ʻana i kahi kiʻi moʻolelo. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "He pololei loa a kūpono hoʻi ka hana ʻana i kahi hōʻailona - he mea maikaʻi loa ia." Akā ua ʻike pū ʻo Darling e make ana ka lāʻau. Mai ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā makahiki 1900, ua pā ʻia e ka maʻi ahulau like, kahi i manaʻo ʻia ua make he 3 biliona a ʻoi aku paha mai ia mau maʻi. ʻO kēia ka maʻi mua i lawe ʻia e ke kanaka e hoʻopau nui ana i nā lāʻau i ka mōʻaukala hou. Ua manaʻo ʻo Darling, inā ʻaʻole hiki iā ia ke hoʻopakele i kēlā lāʻau, e hoʻopakele ʻo ia i kāna mau hua. Hoʻokahi wale nō pilikia: ʻaʻole hana ka lāʻau i kekahi mea no ka mea ʻaʻohe lāʻau chestnut ʻē aʻe e kokoke ana e hiki ke hoʻopili iā ia.
He ʻenekinia ʻo Darling e hoʻohana ana i nā ʻano hana a ka ʻenekinia e hoʻoponopono i nā pilikia. I Iune aʻe, i ka wā i hoʻopuehu ʻia ai nā pua melemele māmā ma luna o ka ʻōmaʻomaʻo o ka lāʻau, ua hoʻopiha ʻo Darling i nā pōkā pana me ka pauka pana, i lawe ʻia mai nā pua kāne o kekahi lāʻau chestnut ʻē aʻe āna i aʻo ai, a holo akula i ka ʻākau. Ua hala hoʻokahi hola a me ka hapa. Ua pana ʻo ia i ka lāʻau mai ka helikopter i hoʻolimalima ʻia. (Ke hoʻokele nei ʻo ia i kahi ʻoihana kūkulu holomua e hiki ke uku i nā mea hoʻonui.) Ua hāʻule kēia hoʻoikaika ʻana. I ka makahiki aʻe, ua hoʻāʻo hou ʻo Darling. I kēia manawa, ua kauō ʻo ia a me kāna keiki i ke kahua i nā chestnut ma luna o ka puʻu a kūkulu i kahi kahua 80 kapuaʻi ke kiʻekiʻe ma mua o ʻelua pule. Ua piʻi kaʻu mea aloha i luna o ka canopy a holoi i nā pua me nā pua e like me ka ilo ma kekahi lāʻau chestnut.
I kēlā hāʻule, ua hua mai nā lālā o ke kumulāʻau ʻo Darling i nā ʻūpā i uhi ʻia me nā kākalaioa ʻōmaʻomaʻo. Ua mānoanoa a ʻoi loa kēia mau kākalaioa a hiki ke kuhihewa ʻia he cacti. ʻAʻole kiʻekiʻe ka ʻohi ʻana, aia ma kahi o 100 mau nati, akā ua kanu ʻo Darling i kekahi a hoʻopaʻa i ka manaʻolana. Ua hoʻopili pū ʻo ia a me kahi hoaaloha iā Charles Maynard lāua ʻo William Powell, ʻelua mau loea genetic lāʻau ma ke Kula ʻEpekema Kaiapuni a me ka Ululāʻau o ke Kulanui ʻo New York ma Syracuse (ua make ʻo Chuck lāua ʻo Bill). Ua hoʻomaka koke nei lākou i kahi papahana noiʻi chestnut haʻahaʻa ma laila. Hāʻawi ʻo Darling iā lākou i kekahi mau chestnut a nīnau i nā ʻepekema inā hiki iā lākou ke hoʻohana iā lākou e hoʻihoʻi mai iā lākou. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Darling: "Me he mea lā he mea maikaʻi kēia." "ʻO ka hikina holoʻokoʻa o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa." Eia naʻe, i kekahi mau makahiki ma hope mai, ua make kāna kumulāʻau ponoʻī.
Mai ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ka poʻe ʻEulopa e noho ma ʻAmelika ʻĀkau, ua lilo ka moʻolelo e pili ana i nā ululāʻau o ka ʻāina nui i mea pohō nui. Eia nō naʻe, ua manaʻo ʻia ka manaʻo o Darling e ka poʻe he nui ʻo ia kekahi o nā manawa kūpono loa e hoʻomaka ai e hoʻoponopono hou i ka moʻolelo - ma mua o kēia makahiki, ua hāʻawi ka Templeton World Charity Foundation iā Maynard lāua ʻo Powell i ka hapa nui o kona mōʻaukala, a ua hiki i kēia hoʻoikaika ʻana ke hoʻopau i kahi hana liʻiliʻi i ʻoi aku ma mua o $3 miliona. ʻO ia ka makana hoʻokahi nui loa i hāʻawi ʻia i ke kulanui. ʻO ka noiʻi a nā geneticists e koi i nā mea mālama honua e kū i ka manaʻolana ma kahi ala hou a i kekahi manawa ʻoluʻolu ʻole, ʻo ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ke ao kūlohelohe ʻaʻole ia he manaʻo e hoʻi i kahi Māla ʻEdena piha. Akā, ʻo ia hoʻi ke apo ʻana i ke kuleana a mākou i manaʻo ai: ʻo ka ʻenekinia o nā mea āpau me ke kūlohelohe.
He lōʻihi a he niho nā lau Chestnut, a ua like lākou me ʻelua mau pahi ʻoki liʻiliʻi ʻōmaʻomaʻo i hoʻopili ʻia i hope a i hope i ke aʻa waena o ka lau. Ma kekahi ʻaoʻao, ua hoʻopili ʻia nā lau ʻelua i kahi kumu. Ma kekahi ʻaoʻao, hana lākou i kahi wēlau ʻoi, kahi i kūlou pinepine ʻia i ka ʻaoʻao. ʻOki kēia ʻano i manaʻo ʻole ʻia ma waena o nā puʻu ʻōmaʻomaʻo mālie a me nā puʻu one i loko o ka ululāʻau, a ʻo ka noʻonoʻo kupaianaha o ka poʻe hele wāwae i hoʻāla i ka manaʻo o ka poʻe, e hoʻomanaʻo ana iā lākou i kā lākou huakaʻi ma waena o ka ululāʻau i loaʻa mua i nā lāʻau ikaika he nui.
Ma o ka palapala a me ka hoʻomanaʻo wale nō e hiki ai iā kākou ke hoʻomaopopo piha i kēia mau lāʻau. Ua kākau ʻo Lucille Griffin, ka luna hoʻomalu o ka American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, ma laila ʻoe e ʻike ai i nā chestnuts momona loa i ka pūnāwai, nā pua creamy, linear ma luna o ka lāʻau "e like me ka ʻōwili ʻana o nā nalu foamy i lalo o ka puʻu", e alakaʻi ana i nā hoʻomanaʻo o ke kupuna kāne. I ka hāʻule, e pahū hou ka lāʻau, i kēia manawa me nā burrs prickly e uhi ana i ka ʻono. "I ka wā i oʻo ai nā chestnuts, ua hoʻomoe au i ka hapalua bushel i ka hoʻoilo," i kākau ai ʻo Thoreau olaola ma "Walden." "I kēlā kau, he mea hoihoi loa ka holoholo ʻana i ka nahele chestnut pau ʻole ma Lincoln i kēlā manawa."
He hilinaʻi loa nā Chestnuts. ʻAʻole e like me nā lāʻau ʻoka e hāʻule wale ana nā acorns i loko o kekahi mau makahiki, hua mai nā lāʻau chestnut i ka nui o nā hua nati i kēlā me kēia hāʻule. He maʻalahi hoʻi ka ʻeli ʻana i nā Chestnuts: hiki iā ʻoe ke ʻili iā lākou a ʻai i kahi maka. (E hoʻāʻo e hoʻohana i nā acorns waiwai i nā tannins-a i ʻole mai hana.) ʻAi nā kānaka a pau i nā chestnuts: dia, squirrel, bea, manu, kanaka. Hoʻokuʻu nā mahiʻai i kā lākou puaʻa a loaʻa ka momona i loko o ka nahele. I ka wā Kalikimaka, ua holo nā kaʻaahi piha i nā chestnuts mai nā mauna a i ke kūlanakauhale. ʻAe, ua puhi ʻia lākou e ke ahi. "Ua ʻōlelo ʻia ma kekahi mau wahi, loaʻa i nā mahiʻai ka loaʻa kālā hou aʻe mai ke kūʻai aku ʻana i nā chestnuts ma mua o nā huahana mahiʻai ʻē aʻe," wahi a William L. Bray, ke dean mua o ke kula kahi i hana ai ʻo Maynard lāua ʻo Powell ma hope. Kākau ʻia i ka makahiki 1915. ʻO ia ka lāʻau o nā kānaka, ʻo ka hapa nui o ia mau mea e ulu ana i loko o ka nahele.
Hāʻawi pū ia i nā mea ʻoi aku ma mua o ka meaʻai wale nō. Hiki i nā lāʻau Chestnut ke piʻi aʻe i 120 kapuaʻi, a ʻaʻole i hoʻopilikia ʻia nā kapuaʻi 50 mua e nā lālā a i ʻole nā ​​​​​​pū. ʻO kēia ka moeʻuhane o nā mea hana lāʻau. ʻOiai ʻaʻole ia he lāʻau nani loa a ʻaʻole hoʻi he lāʻau ikaika loa, ulu wikiwiki loa ia, ʻoiai ke ulu hou ia ma hope o ka ʻoki ʻana a ʻaʻole e pala. I ka wā i ʻoi aku ai ka paʻa o nā kaula kaʻaahi a me nā pou kelepona ma mua o ka nani, ua kōkua ʻo Chestnut i ke kūkulu ʻana i ʻAmelika ʻoihana. He mau tausani o nā hale papaʻa, nā hale liʻiliʻi a me nā hale pule i hana ʻia me nā chestnut e kū nei; ua manaʻo kekahi mea kākau i ka makahiki 1915 ʻo ia ka ʻano lāʻau i ʻoki nui ʻia ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa.
Ma ka hapa nui o ka hikina—aia nā kumulāʻau mai Mississippi a i Maine, a mai ke kahakai ʻo ʻAkelanika a i ka muliwai ʻo Mississippi—ʻo nā chestnuts kekahi o lākou. Akā ma nā ʻĀpalakia, he kumulāʻau nui ia. He mau piliona o nā chestnuts e noho ana ma kēia mau mauna.
He kūpono ia i ka puka mua ʻana o ka Fusarium wilting ma New York, ʻo ia ke ala i nā ʻAmelika he nui. I ka makahiki 1904, ua ʻike ʻia kahi maʻi ʻē ma ka ʻili o kahi lāʻau chestnut i hoʻopau ʻia ma ka Bronx Zoo. Ua hoʻoholo koke nā kānaka noiʻi ua hōʻea ka fungus i hoʻoulu ai i ka bacteria blight (i kapa ʻia ʻo Cryphonectria parasitica ma hope) ma nā lāʻau Kepani i lawe ʻia mai i ka makahiki 1876. (Aia ka manawa maʻamau ma waena o ka hoʻolauna ʻana o kahi ʻano a me ka ʻike ʻana i nā pilikia maopopo.)
I ka manawa koke, ua hōʻike ka poʻe ma kekahi mau mokuʻāina i ka make ʻana o nā lāʻau. I ka makahiki 1906, ua paʻi ʻo William A. Murrill, he mycologist ma ka New York Botanical Garden, i ka ʻatikala ʻepekema mua e pili ana i ka maʻi. Ua kuhikuhi ʻo Muriel e hoʻoulu kēia fungus i kahi maʻi pehu melemele-ʻeleʻele ma ka ʻili o ke kumu chestnut, ka mea e hoʻomaʻemaʻe ai a puni ke kumu. Ke hiki ʻole i nā meaʻai a me ka wai ke kahe i luna a i lalo i loko o nā kīʻaha ʻili ma lalo o ka ʻili, e make nā mea āpau ma luna o ke apo make.
ʻAʻole hiki i kekahi poʻe ke noʻonoʻo - a ʻaʻole makemake paha i kekahi e noʻonoʻo - i kahi lāʻau e nalowale ana mai ka nahele. I ka makahiki 1911, ua manaʻoʻiʻo ʻo Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm, he hui kamaliʻi ma Pennsylvania, ʻo ka maʻi "ʻoi aku ma mua o ka makaʻu wale nō." Noho lōʻihi o nā mea kākau moʻolelo kuleana ʻole. Ua pani ʻia ka mahiʻai i ka makahiki 1913. ʻElua makahiki i hala aku nei, ua hoʻākoakoa ʻo Pennsylvania i kahi kōmike maʻi chestnut, i ʻae ʻia e hoʻolilo iā US $ 275,000 (he kālā nui i kēlā manawa), a hoʻolaha i kahi pūʻolo o nā mana e hana i nā hana e hakakā ai i kēia ʻeha, me ke kuleana e luku i nā lāʻau ma ka waiwai pilikino. Paipai nā pathologists e wehe i nā lāʻau chestnut āpau i loko o kekahi mau mile mai ke alo o ka maʻi nui e hana i kahi hopena pale ahi. Akā ua ʻike ʻia hiki i kēia fungus ke lele i nā lāʻau i loaʻa ʻole ka maʻi, a ua hoʻopilikia ʻia kāna mau spores e ka makani, nā manu, nā pepeke a me nā kānaka. Ua haʻalele ʻia ka hoʻolālā.
I ka makahiki 1940, ʻaneʻane ʻaʻohe ʻano chestnut nui i loaʻa i ka maʻi. I kēia lā, ua pau ke kumukūʻai o nā piliona kālā. ʻOiai ʻaʻole hiki i ka fusarium wilt ke ola i loko o ka lepo, ke ulu mau nei nā aʻa chestnut, a ʻoi aku ma mua o 400 miliona o lākou e waiho nei i loko o ka nahele. Eia naʻe, ua loaʻa i ka Fusarium wilt kahi waihona wai i loko o ke kumu ʻoka kahi i noho ai me ka ʻole o ka hōʻino nui ʻana i kona kikowaena. Mai laila mai, pālahalaha koke ia i nā ʻōpuʻu chestnut hou a hoʻokuke iā lākou i ka lepo, ma mua o ko lākou hiki ʻana i ke kahua pua.
Ua loaʻa i ka ʻoihana lāʻau nā koho ʻē aʻe: ʻoka, paina, walnut, a me ka lehu. ʻO ka tanning, kekahi ʻoihana nui e hilinaʻi nei i nā lāʻau chestnut, ua hoʻololi i nā mea tanning synthetic. No nā mahiʻai ʻilihune he nui, ʻaʻohe mea e hoʻololi ai: ʻaʻohe lāʻau ʻōiwi ʻē aʻe e hāʻawi i nā mahiʻai a me kā lākou mau holoholona me nā calorie a me ka protein manuahi, hilinaʻi a nui. Hiki ke ʻōlelo ʻia ʻo Chestnut blight e hoʻopau i kahi hana maʻamau o ka mahiʻai ponoʻī o Appalachians, e koi ana i nā kānaka ma ia wahi e loaʻa kahi koho maopopo: e hele i loko o kahi lua lanahu a neʻe aku paha. Ua kākau ka mea kākau moʻolelo ʻo Donald Davis i ka makahiki 2005: "Ma muli o ka make ʻana o nā chestnuts, ua make ke ao holoʻokoʻa, e hoʻopau ana i nā loina ola i kū ma nā mauna Appalachian no nā kenekulia ʻehā a ʻoi."
Ua ulu ʻo Powell ma kahi mamao loa mai nā ʻApalakia a me nā ʻāina ʻōmaʻomaʻo. Ua lawelawe kona makuakāne ma ka Air Force a neʻe akula i kona ʻohana: Indiana, Florida, Kelemānia, a me ke kahakai hikina o Maryland. ʻOiai ua hoʻolilo ʻo ia i kahi ʻoihana ma New York, ua mālama kāna mau haʻiʻōlelo i ka ʻoiaʻiʻo o ka Midwest a me ka manaʻo maalea akā ʻike ʻia o ka Hema. Hoʻokō kāna mau ʻano maʻalahi a me ke ʻano hana lole maʻalahi kekahi i kekahi, e hōʻike ana i nā jeans me ka hoʻololi pālule plaid pau ʻole. ʻO kāna ʻōlelo punahele ʻo "wow".
Hoʻolālā ʻo Powell e lilo i kauka holoholona a hiki i ka wā e hoʻohiki ai kekahi polopeka o ka genetics iā ia i ka manaʻolana o kahi mahiʻai hou a ʻōmaʻomaʻo e pili ana i nā mea kanu i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics e hiki ke hana i kāna mau hiki ke pale aku i nā pepeke a me nā maʻi. "Ua manaʻo wau, auē, ʻaʻole maikaʻi ka hana ʻana i nā mea kanu e hiki ke pale iā ʻoe iho mai nā mea ʻino, a ʻaʻole pono ʻoe e pīpī i nā pesticides ma luna o lākou?" wahi a Powell. "ʻOiaʻiʻo, ʻaʻole hahai ke koena o ka honua i ka manaʻo like."
I ka hōʻea ʻana o Powell i ke kula puka o ke Kulanui ʻo Utah State i ka makahiki 1983, ʻaʻole ʻo ia i hopohopo. Eia naʻe, ua komo ʻo ia i loko o kahi keʻena hoʻokolohua o kahi biologist, a ke hana nei ʻo ia ma kahi virus e hiki ke hoʻonāwaliwali i ka haʻalulu blight. ʻAʻole i holo pono kā lākou hoʻāʻo e hoʻohana i kēia virus: ʻaʻole ia i laha mai kekahi lāʻau a i kekahi lāʻau ma kāna iho, no laila pono e hoʻopilikino ʻia no nā ʻano fungal he nui. ʻOiai kēia, ua hoihoi ʻo Powell i ka moʻolelo o kahi lāʻau nui e hāʻule ana i lalo a hāʻawi i kahi hopena ʻepekema no ka hanana ʻana o nā hewa kaumaha i hana ʻia e ke kanaka. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "Ma muli o ka hoʻokele maikaʻi ʻole o kā mākou waiwai e neʻe ana a puni ka honua, ua lawe hewa mākou i nā pathogens." "Ua manaʻo wau: Auē, he mea hoihoi kēia. Aia kahi manawa e hoʻihoʻi mai ai."
ʻAʻole ʻo Powell ka hoʻāʻo mua e hoʻopau i nā pohō. Ma hope o ka maopopo ʻana ua hoʻopaʻi ʻia nā chestnuts ʻAmelika e hāʻule, ua hoʻāʻo ka USDA e kanu i nā lāʻau chestnut Kina, kahi hoahānau i ʻoi aku ka paʻakikī i ka mae ʻana, e hoʻomaopopo inā hiki i kēia ʻano ke pani i nā chestnuts ʻAmelika. Eia nō naʻe, ulu nui nā chestnuts i waho, a ʻoi aku ka like me nā lāʻau hua ma mua o nā lāʻau hua. Ua hoʻoemi ʻia lākou i loko o ka nahele e nā lāʻau ʻoka a me nā pilikua ʻAmelika ʻē aʻe. Ua ālai ʻia ko lākou ulu ʻana, a make wale paha lākou. Ua hoʻāʻo pū nā kānaka ʻepekema e hoʻoulu i nā chestnuts mai ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a me Kina pū kekahi, me ka manaʻolana e hana i kahi lāʻau me nā ʻano maikaʻi o nā mea ʻelua. Ua hāʻule nā ​​​​hana a ke aupuni a ua haʻalele ʻia.
Ua hoʻopau ʻo Powell i ka hana ma ke Kula ʻEpekema Kaiapuni a me ka Ululāʻau o ke Kulanui Mokuʻāina o New York, kahi āna i hālāwai ai me Chuck Maynard, he loea genetics nāna i kanu i nā lāʻau i loko o ka hale hana. I kekahi mau makahiki i hala aku nei, ua hana nā kānaka ʻepekema i ka ʻiʻo mea kanu mua i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics - me ka hoʻohui ʻana i kahi gene e hāʻawi ana i ke kūʻē ʻana i ka antibiotic i ka paka no nā hōʻikeʻike loea ma mua o kekahi hoʻohana kālepa. Ua hoʻomaka ʻo Maynard (Maynard) e hoʻāʻo i ka ʻenehana hou, ʻoiai e ʻimi ana i ka ʻenehana pono e pili ana iā ia. I kēlā manawa, he mau hua a Darling a he pilikia: ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i nā chestnuts ʻAmelika.
I loko o nā tausani makahiki o nā hana hoʻoulu mea kanu kuʻuna, ua hoʻohuihui nā mahiʻai (a me nā kānaka ʻepekema hou) i nā ʻano like ʻole me nā ʻano i makemake ʻia. A laila, ua hui pū ʻia nā genes, a koho nā kānaka i nā hui hoʻohiki no ke ʻano kiʻekiʻe - nā hua nui a ʻono a i ʻole ke kūpaʻa ʻana i nā maʻi. ʻO ka maʻamau, he mau hanauna e hana ai i kahi huahana. He lohi kēia kaʻina hana a he huikau iki. Ua noʻonoʻo ʻo Darling inā e hana kēia ʻano hana i kahi lāʻau e like me kona ʻano hihiu. Ua ʻōlelo mai ʻo ia iaʻu: "Manaʻo wau hiki iā mākou ke hana maikaʻi."
ʻO ke ʻano o ka ʻenekinia genetic ke kaohi nui aʻe: ʻoiai inā loaʻa kahi gene kikoʻī mai kahi ʻano pili ʻole, hiki ke koho ʻia no kahi kumu kikoʻī a hoʻokomo ʻia i loko o ka genome o kekahi meaola ʻē aʻe. (ʻO nā meaola me nā genes mai nā ʻano like ʻole ua "hoʻololi ʻia ke ʻano." I kēia manawa, ua hoʻomohala nā kānaka ʻepekema i nā ʻano hana e hoʻoponopono pololei i ka genome o nā meaola i manaʻo ʻia.) Hoʻohiki kēia ʻenehana i ka pololei a me ka wikiwiki i ʻike ʻole ʻia. Manaʻo ʻo Powell he kūpono loa kēia no nā chestnuts ʻAmelika, āna i kapa ai he "mau lāʻau kokoke i ka hemolele" - ikaika, kiʻekiʻe, a waiwai i nā kumu meaʻai, e koi wale ana i kahi hoʻoponopono kikoʻī loa: ke kūʻē ʻana i ka palaho bacteria.
ʻAe like. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "Pono mākou e loaʻa nā ʻenekinia i kā mākou ʻoihana." "Mai ke kūkulu ʻana a i ke kūkulu ʻana he ʻano automation wale nō kēia."
Ua manaʻo ʻo Powell lāua ʻo Maynard e hala paha he ʻumi mau makahiki e ʻimi ai i nā genes e hāʻawi i ke kūʻē, hoʻomohala i ka ʻenehana e hoʻohui iā lākou i ka genome chestnut, a laila hoʻoulu iā lākou. "Ke kuhi wale nei mākou," wahi a Powell. "ʻAʻohe mea nona nā genes e hāʻawi i ke kūʻē fungal. Ua hoʻomaka maoli mākou mai kahi hakahaka."
Ua ʻimi ʻo Darling i ke kākoʻo mai ka American Chestnut Foundation, kahi hui waiwai ʻole i hoʻokumu ʻia i ka hoʻomaka ʻana o nā makahiki 1980. Ua haʻi aku kona alakaʻi iā ia ua nalowale loa ʻo ia. Ua kūpaʻa lākou i ka hybridization a ke makaʻala nei e pili ana i ka ʻenekinia genetic, kahi i hoʻāla ai i ke kūʻē mai nā mea mālama honua. No laila, ua hoʻokumu ʻo Darling i kāna hui waiwai ʻole ponoʻī e kākoʻo i ka hana ʻenekinia genetic. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Powell ua kākau ka hui i ka hōʻoia mua iā Maynard lāua ʻo Powell no $30,000. (I ka makahiki 1990, ua hoʻoponopono hou ka hui aupuni a ʻae i ka hui hoʻokaʻawale o Darling ma ke ʻano he lālā mokuʻāina mua, akā ua kānalua mau kekahi mau lālā a kūʻē loa paha i ka ʻenekinia genetic.)
Ke hana nei ʻo Maynard lāua ʻo Powell. Kokoke koke, ua hōʻoia ʻia kā lāua papa manawa i manaʻo ʻia he mea hiki ʻole ke hoʻopono. ʻO ka pilikia mua, ʻo ia ke ʻike pehea e ulu ai i nā chestnuts i loko o ka hale hana. Ua hoʻāʻo ʻo Maynard e kāwili i nā lau chestnut a me ka hormone ulu i loko o kahi kīʻaha petri plastik poepoe pāpaʻu, kahi ʻano hana i hoʻohana ʻia e ulu ai i nā poplars. Ua ʻike ʻia he mea hiki ʻole ke hoʻopono kēia. ʻAʻole e ulu nā lāʻau hou i nā aʻa a me nā wana mai nā cell kūikawā. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Maynard: "ʻO wau ke alakaʻi honua i ka pepehi ʻana i nā lāʻau chestnut." Ua aʻo hope kekahi mea noiʻi ma ke Kulanui o Georgia, ʻo Scott Merkle (Scott Merkle) iā Maynard pehea e hele ai mai ka pollination a i ka mea e hiki mai ana. E kanu i nā chestnuts i loko o nā embryos i ke kahua hoʻomohala.
ʻO ka loaʻa ʻana o ka gene kūpono - ka hana a Powell - ua hōʻoia ʻia hoʻi he paʻakikī. Ua hoʻohana ʻo ia i kekahi mau makahiki e noiʻi ana i kahi hui antibacterial e pili ana i nā genes rana, akā ua haʻalele i ka hui ma muli o nā hopohopo e ʻae ʻole paha ka lehulehu i nā lāʻau me nā rana. Ua ʻimi pū ʻo ia i kahi gene e kūʻē i ka pala bacteria i loko o nā chestnuts, akā ua ʻike ʻo ka pale ʻana i ka lāʻau e pili ana i nā genes he nui (ua ʻike lākou ma ka liʻiliʻi he ʻeono). A laila, i ka makahiki 1997, ua hoʻi mai kekahi hoa hana mai kahi hālāwai ʻepekema a ua papa inoa i kahi abstract a me ka hōʻike. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Powell i kahi poʻo inoa i kapa ʻia ʻo "Expression of oxalate oxidase in transgenic plants provides resistance to oxalate and oxalate-producing fungi". Mai kāna noiʻi virus, ua ʻike ʻo Powell e hoʻopuka nā fungi wilting i ka waikawa oxalic e pepehi i ka ʻili chestnut a maʻalahi ke ʻeli. Ua ʻike ʻo Powell inā hiki i ka chestnut ke hana i kāna oxalate oxidase ponoʻī (kahi protein kūikawā e hiki ke wāwahi i ka oxalate), a laila hiki paha iā ia ke pale aku iā ia iho. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "ʻO ia koʻu manawa Eureka."
Ua ʻike ʻia he nui nā mea kanu i loaʻa kahi gene e hiki ai iā lākou ke hana i ka oxalate oxidase. Mai ka mea noiʻi nāna i hāʻawi i ka haʻiʻōlelo, ua loaʻa iā Powell kahi ʻano like ʻole o ka palaoa. Ua hoʻomaikaʻi ke haumāna puka ʻo Linda Polin McGuigan i ka ʻenehana "gene gun" e hoʻokuʻu i nā genes i loko o nā embryos chestnut, me ka manaʻolana e hiki ke hoʻokomo ʻia i loko o ka DNA o ka embryo. Ua noho manawa pōkole ka gene i loko o ka embryo, akā ua nalowale. Ua haʻalele ka hui noiʻi i kēia ʻano hana a ua hoʻololi i kahi bacteria i hoʻomohala i kahi ʻano hana o ka ʻoki ʻana i ka DNA o nā meaola ʻē aʻe a me ka hoʻokomo ʻana i kā lākou mau genes. Ma ke ʻano, hoʻohui nā microorganisms i nā genes e koi ai i ka mea hoʻokipa e hana i ka meaʻai bacteria. Ua hoʻouka nā geneticists i kēia bacteria i hiki iā ia ke hoʻokomo i kekahi gene a ka mea ʻepekema e makemake ai. Ua loaʻa iā McGuigan ka hiki ke hoʻohui pono i nā genes palaoa a me nā protein marker i nā embryos chestnut. Ke hoʻomālamalama ʻia ka protein ma lalo o kahi microscope, e hoʻopuka ka protein i kahi kukui ʻōmaʻomaʻo, e hōʻike ana i ka hoʻokomo holomua. (Ua hoʻōki koke ka hui i ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā protein marker-ʻaʻohe mea makemake i kahi lāʻau e hiki ke ʻālohilohi.) Ua kapa ʻo Maynard i ke ʻano hana "ʻo ka mea nani loa ma ka honua."
I ka hala ʻana o ka manawa, ua kūkulu ʻo Maynard lāua ʻo Powell i kahi laina hōʻuluʻulu chestnut, kahi e hoʻonui ʻia nei i nā papahele he nui o kahi hale noiʻi ululāʻau brick-and-mortar nani o nā makahiki 1960, a me ka hale hana "Biotech Accelerator" hou ma waho o ke kahua kula. ʻO ke kaʻina hana mua e pili ana i ke koho ʻana i nā embryos e ulu ana mai nā cell like genetically (ʻaʻole hana ka hapa nui o nā embryos i hana ʻia i loko o ka lab, no laila he mea ʻole ke hana i nā clones) a hoʻokomo i nā genes palaoa. ʻO nā cell Embryonic, e like me ka agar, he mea like me ka pudding i unuhi ʻia mai ka algae. I mea e hoʻolilo ai i ka embryo i lāʻau, ua hoʻohui nā mea noiʻi i ka hormone ulu. Hiki ke hoʻokipa ʻia nā haneli o nā pahu plastik ʻano cube me nā lāʻau chestnut liʻiliʻi ʻaʻohe aʻa ma kahi papa ma lalo o ke kukui fluorescent ikaika. ʻO ka hope loa, ua hoʻopili nā kānaka ʻepekema i ka hormone rooting, kanu i kā lākou mau lāʻau kumu i loko o nā ipu i piha i ka lepo, a waiho iā lākou i loko o kahi keʻena ulu i kāohi ʻia e ka mahana. ʻAʻole ia he mea kupanaha, aia nā lāʻau i loko o ka hale hana i ke kūlana maikaʻi ʻole ma waho. No laila, ua hoʻohui nā mea noiʻi iā lākou me nā lāʻau hihiu e hana i nā specimens paʻakikī akā kūpaʻa no ka hoʻāʻo ʻana ma ke kahua.
I ʻelua kauwela i hala aku nei, ua hōʻike mai ʻo Hannah Pilkey, he haumāna puka ma ka hale hana o Powell, iaʻu pehea e hana ai i kēia. Ua mahi ʻo ia i ka fungus e hoʻoulu ai i ka pala bacteria i loko o kahi kīʻaha petri plastik liʻiliʻi. Ma kēia ʻano pani ʻia, ʻike ʻia ka pathogen ʻalani palupalu he maikaʻi a kokoke i ka nani. He paʻakikī ke noʻonoʻo ʻo ia ke kumu o ka make nui a me ka luku ʻia.
Ua kukuli ke kaʻa ma ka honua ma ka honua, ua kaha i ka ʻāpana ʻelima milimita o kahi lāʻau liʻiliʻi, ua hana i ʻekolu ʻoki pololei me ka scalpel, a ua hamo i ka palaho ma luna o ka ʻeha. Ua sila ʻo ia iā lākou me kahi ʻāpana ʻili plastik. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "Ua like ia me kahi band-aid." ʻOiai he lāʻau "mana" kū ʻole kēia, manaʻo ʻo ia e pālahalaha koke ka maʻi ʻalani mai kahi i hoʻopili ʻia ai a hoʻopuni i nā kumu liʻiliʻi. Ua hōʻike mai ʻo ia iaʻu i kekahi mau lāʻau i loaʻa nā genes palaoa āna i mālama mua ai. Ua kaupalena ʻia ka maʻi i ka ʻoki ʻana, e like me nā lehelehe ʻalani lahilahi kokoke i ka waha liʻiliʻi.
I ka makahiki 2013, ua hoʻolaha ʻo Maynard lāua ʻo Powell i ko lāua holomua ma ka Transgenic Research: 109 mau makahiki ma hope o ka ʻike ʻia ʻana o ka maʻi ʻAmelika, ua hana lāua i kahi lāʻau pale ponoʻī, ʻoiai inā ua hoʻouka ʻia lākou e nā nui o nā fungi mae. I ka hoʻohanohano ʻana i kā lāua mea hāʻawi mua a lokomaikaʻi loa, ua hoʻopukapuka ʻo ia ma kahi o $250,000, a ua kapa inoa nā mea noiʻi i nā lāʻau ma hope ona. Ua kapa ʻia kēia ʻo Darling 58.
Ua mālama ʻia ka hālāwai makahiki o ka Mokuna ʻo New York o ka American Chestnut Foundation ma kahi hōkele haʻahaʻa ma waho o New Paltz i kahi Pōʻaono ua nui i ʻOkakopa 2018. Ma kahi o 50 mau kānaka i ʻākoakoa pū. ʻO kēia hālāwai he hapa o ka hālāwai ʻepekema a he hapa o ka hālāwai hoʻololi chestnut. Ma ke kua o kahi lumi hālāwai liʻiliʻi, ua hoʻololi nā lālā i nā ʻeke Ziploc piha i nā nati. ʻO kēia hālāwai ka manawa mua i loko o 28 mau makahiki i hele ʻole ai ʻo Darling a i ʻole Maynard. Ua hoʻopaʻa nā pilikia olakino iā lāua ʻelua. "Ua lōʻihi kā mākou hana ʻana i kēia, a kokoke i kēlā me kēia makahiki ke noho mālie nei mākou no ka poʻe make," wahi a Allen Nichols, ka pelekikena o ka hui, iaʻu. Eia naʻe, ke manaʻolana nei ke ʻano: ua hala ka lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics i nā makahiki he nui o nā hoʻāʻo palekana a me ka pono.
Ua hāʻawi nā lālā o ka mokuna i kahi hoʻolauna kikoʻī i ke kūlana o kēlā me kēia lāʻau chestnut nui e noho ana ma ka Mokuʻāina ʻo Nu Ioka. Ua hoʻolauna ʻo Pilkey a me nā haumāna puka ʻē aʻe i ke ʻano o ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana a me ka mālama ʻana i ka pollen, pehea e ulu ai i nā chestnut ma lalo o nā kukui o loko, a pehea e hoʻopiha ai i ka lepo me ka maʻi palapū e hoʻolōʻihi i ke ola o nā lāʻau. ʻO ka poʻe cashew chestnut, he nui o lākou e pollinate a ulu i kā lākou mau lāʻau ponoʻī, ua nīnau i nā ʻepekema ʻōpio.
Ua kau ʻo Bowell ma ka papahele, e ʻaʻahu ana i ka mea i like me ke ʻano o kahi ʻaʻahu kūhelu ʻole no kēia mokuna: he pālule ʻāʻī i hoʻokomo ʻia i loko o nā jeans. ʻO kāna alualu hoʻokahi-he ʻoihana kanakolu makahiki i hoʻonohonoho ʻia a puni ka pahuhopu a Herb Darling o ka loaʻa hou ʻana o nā chestnuts-he mea kakaikahi i waena o nā ʻepekema hoʻonaʻauao, ka poʻe e hana pinepine i ka noiʻi i loko o kahi pōʻaiapuni kālā ʻelima makahiki, a laila hāʻawi ʻia nā hopena hoʻohiki i nā poʻe ʻē aʻe no ke kālepa ʻana. Ua haʻi mai ʻo Don Leopold, he hoa hana ma ka ʻOihana ʻEpekema Kaiapuni a me ka Ululāʻau ʻo Powell iaʻu: "He akahele loa ʻo ia a he hoʻopaʻi." "Hoʻokomo ʻo ia i nā pale. ʻAʻole ʻo ia i hoʻopilikia ʻia e nā mea ʻē aʻe he nui. I ka holomua ʻana o ka noiʻi, ua hoʻokaʻaʻike aku nā luna hoʻomalu o ke Kulanui Mokuʻāina o New York (SUNY) iā ia a noi i kahi palapala hoʻopaʻa no kāna lāʻau i hiki i ke kulanui ke pōmaikaʻi mai ia mea, akā ua hōʻole ʻo Powell. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia ua like nā lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetically me nā chestnuts mua a lawelawe i nā kānaka. Aia ka poʻe o Powell i loko o kēia lumi.
Akā ua ao aku ʻo ia iā lākou: Ma hope o ka lanakila ʻana i ka hapa nui o nā pilikia loea, hiki i nā lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetically ke kū i ka pilikia nui loa: ke aupuni US. I kekahi mau pule i hala aku nei, ua waiho ʻo Powell i kahi faila kokoke i 3,000 ʻaoʻao i ka US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, nona ke kuleana no ka ʻae ʻana i nā mea kanu i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetically. Hoʻomaka kēia i ke kaʻina ʻae o ka ʻoihana: e nānā i ka noi, e noi i nā manaʻo o ka lehulehu, e hana i kahi ʻōlelo hopena o ke kaiapuni, e noi hou i nā manaʻo o ka lehulehu a hoʻoholo. Hiki i kēia hana ke hala i kekahi mau makahiki. Inā ʻaʻohe hoʻoholo, hiki ke kū ka papahana. (ʻAʻole i wehe ʻia ka wā manaʻo mua o ka lehulehu.)
Hoʻolālā nā mea noiʻi e waiho i nā palapala noi ʻē aʻe i ka Food and Drug Administration i hiki iā ia ke nānā i ka palekana o ka meaʻai o nā nati i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics, a e loiloi ka Environmental Protection Agency i ka hopena o kēia lāʻau i ke kaiapuni ma lalo o ke Kānāwai Pesticide Pekelala, ka mea i koi ʻia no nā mea kanu i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics o. mea olaola. "He ʻoi aku ka paʻakikī o kēia ma mua o ka ʻepekema!" wahi a kekahi o ka lehulehu.
"ʻAe." Ua ʻae ʻo Powell. "He mea hoihoi ka ʻepekema. He mea hoʻonāukiuki ia." (Ua haʻi mai ʻo ia iaʻu ma hope: "ʻO ka nānā ʻana e ʻekolu mau keʻena like ʻole he mea nui loa ia. Hoʻopau maoli ia i ka hana hou i ka palekana o ke kaiapuni.")
I mea e hōʻoia ai i ka palekana o kā lākou lāʻau, ua hana ka hui o Powell i nā hoʻokolohua like ʻole. Ua hānai lākou i ka oxalate oxidase i ka pollen o nā pi. Ua ana lākou i ka ulu ʻana o nā fungi maikaʻi i ka lepo. Ua waiho lākou i nā lau i loko o ka wai a ua noiʻi i ko lākou mana ma luna o t. ʻAʻohe hopena maikaʻi ʻole i ʻike ʻia ma kekahi o nā haʻawina - ʻo ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka hana o ka ʻai i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics ma mua o nā lau o kekahi mau lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻole ʻia. Ua hoʻouna nā kānaka ʻepekema i nā nati i Oak Ridge National Laboratory a me nā keʻena hoʻokolohua ʻē aʻe ma Tennessee no ka nānā ʻana, a ʻaʻole i loaʻa nā ʻokoʻa me nā nati i hana ʻia e nā lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻole ʻia.
Hiki paha i kēlā mau hopena ke hōʻoluʻolu i nā mea hoʻoponopono. ʻAneʻane maopopo ʻaʻole lākou e hōʻoluʻolu i nā mea hoʻoikaika e kūʻē i nā GMO. Ua hāʻawi manuahi ʻo John Dougherty, he ʻepekema i hoʻomaha ʻia mai Monsanto, i nā lawelawe kūkākūkā iā Powell. Ua kapa ʻo ia i kēia mau hoa paio he "kūʻē." No nā makahiki he ʻumi, ua hoʻomaopopo nā hui kaiapuni e loaʻa nā hopena i manaʻo ʻole ʻia ka neʻe ʻana o nā genes ma waena o nā ʻano pili mamao, e like me ka hoʻokumu ʻana i kahi "super weed" e ʻoi aku ma mua o nā mea kanu kūlohelohe, a i ʻole ka hoʻolauna ʻana i nā genes haole e hiki ai ke hoʻopilikia i ka DNA o nā ʻano. Hopohopo pū lākou e hoʻohana nā hui i ka ʻenekinia genetic e loaʻa ai nā palapala hoʻopaʻa a me nā meaola kaohi.
I kēia manawa, ua ʻōlelo ʻo Powell ʻaʻole ʻo ia i loaʻa i kekahi kālā pololei mai nā kumu ʻoihana, a ua koi ʻo ia ʻaʻole i "paʻa" ka hāʻawi ʻana i nā kālā i ka hale hana. Eia naʻe, ua kuhikuhi ʻo Brenda Jo McManama, ka mea hoʻonohonoho o kahi hui i kapa ʻia ʻo "Indigenous Environmental Network", i kahi ʻaelike i ka makahiki 2010 kahi i hāʻawi ai ʻo Monsanto i ka Chestnut Foundation a me kāna hui hoa ʻo New York The mokuna i ʻae i ʻelua mau palapala hoʻololi genetic. (Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Powell ʻo nā hāʻawi a ka ʻoihana, me Monsanto, he emi ma mua o 4% o kāna kapikala hana holoʻokoʻa.) Manaʻo ʻo McManama e ʻimi malū ana ʻo Monsanto (i loaʻa e Bayer ma 2018) e loaʻa kahi palapala hoʻopaʻa ma ke kākoʻo ʻana i ka mea e like me ka hana hou ʻana o ka lāʻau i ka wā e hiki mai ana. Papahana ponoʻī. "He ʻino a pau ʻo Monsan," wahi āna me ka pololei.
Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Powell ua pau ka palapala Sila Nui ma ka ʻaelike 2010, a ma ka hōʻike ʻana i nā kikoʻī o kāna lāʻau ma nā palapala ʻepekema, ua hōʻoia ʻo ia ʻaʻole hiki ke palapala Sila Nui ʻia ka lāʻau. Akā ua ʻike ʻo ia ʻaʻole e hoʻopau kēia i nā hopohopo a pau. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia, "Ua ʻike wau e ʻōlelo kekahi he maunu wale nō ʻoe no Monsanto." "He aha kāu e hiki ai ke hana? ʻAʻohe mea hiki iā ʻoe ke hana."
Ma kahi o ʻelima mau makahiki i hala aku nei, ua hoʻoholo nā alakaʻi o ka American Chestnut Foundation ʻaʻole hiki iā lākou ke hoʻokō i kā lākou mau pahuhopu ma o ka hybridization wale nō, no laila ua ʻae lākou i ka papahana ʻenekinia genetic a Powell. Ua hoʻokumu kēia hoʻoholo i kekahi mau manaʻo kūʻē. I Malaki 2019, ua haʻalele ka pelekikena o ka Mokuna Massachusetts-Rhode Island o ka Foundation, ʻo Lois Breault-Melican, ma muli o ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa ʻana o ka Global Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), he hui anti-gene engineering ma Buffalo. Justice Ecology Project); ua haʻalele pū kāna kāne ʻo Denis Melican i ka papa. Ua haʻi mai ʻo Dennis iaʻu ua hopohopo nui ka wahine e lilo paha nā chestnuts a Powell i "lio Trojan", kahi i hoʻomaʻemaʻe i ke ala no nā lāʻau kalepa ʻē aʻe e hoʻonui ʻia ma o ka ʻenekinia genetic.
ʻO Susan Offutt, he loea hoʻokele waiwai mahiʻai, ke lawelawe nei ʻo ia ma ke ʻano he luna hoʻomalu o ke Komite National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, nāna i hana i ka noiʻi ʻana ma ka biotechnology ululāʻau i ka makahiki 2018. Ua kuhikuhi ʻo ia e kālele ana ke kaʻina hana hoʻoponopono o ke aupuni i ka pilikia haiki o nā pilikia olaola, a ʻaneʻane ʻaʻole i noʻonoʻo i nā hopohopo pili kaiaulu ākea, e like me nā mea i hāpai ʻia e nā mea hoʻoikaika anti-GMO. "He aha ka waiwai kūloko o ka ululāʻau?" i nīnau ai ʻo ia, ma ke ʻano he laʻana o kahi pilikia, ʻaʻole i hoʻoponopono ʻia e ke kaʻina hana. "He pono anei nā ululāʻau? He kuleana ko kākou e noʻonoʻo i kēia i ka wā e hana ai i nā hoʻoholo hana komo?"
ʻAʻohe kumu nui o ka hopohopo o ka hapa nui o nā kānaka ʻepekema aʻu i kamaʻilio ai e pili ana i nā lāʻau a Powell, no ka mea, ua ʻeha ka nahele i nā pōʻino nui: ka ʻoki lāʻau ʻana, ka eli ʻana, ka hoʻomohala ʻana, a me ka nui ʻole o nā pepeke a me nā maʻi e hoʻopau ana i nā lāʻau. I waena o lākou, ua hōʻoia ʻia ka mae ʻana o ka chestnut he ʻaha wehe. "Ke hoʻolauna mau nei mākou i nā meaola piha hou," wahi a Gary Lovett, he ecologist nahele ma ka Cary Ecosystem Institute ma Millbrook, New York. "ʻOi aku ka liʻiliʻi o ka hopena o nā chestnuts i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetically."
Ua hele hou aku ʻo Donald Waller, he loea i ka nahele i hoʻomaha loa mai ke Kulanui o Wisconsin-Madison. Ua ʻōlelo mai ʻo ia iaʻu: "Ma kekahi ʻaoʻao, ke kuhikuhi nei au i kahi kaulike ma waena o ka pilikia a me ka uku. Ma kekahi ʻaoʻao, ke ʻimi mau nei au i nā pilikia." Hiki i kēia lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics ke hoʻoweliweli i ka nahele. I ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana, "ua piha wale ka ʻaoʻao ma lalo o ka uku me ka ʻīnika." Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia ʻo ka chestnut e kūʻē i ka mae ʻana e lanakila hope loa i kēia nahele i hoʻouka kaua ʻia. Pono nā kānaka i ka manaʻolana. Pono nā kānaka i nā hōʻailona. "
ʻO ke ʻano o Powell e noho mālie, akā hiki i ka poʻe kānalua i ka ʻenekinia genetic ke hoʻoluliluli iā ia. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "ʻAʻole lākou i kūpono iaʻu." "ʻAʻole lākou i hoʻokumu ʻia ma ka ʻepekema." Ke hana nā ʻenekinia i nā kaʻa a i ʻole nā ​​​​kelepona akamai maikaʻi aʻe, ʻaʻohe mea e hoʻopiʻi, no laila makemake ʻo ia e ʻike i ka hewa o nā lāʻau i hoʻolālā maikaʻi ʻia. "He mea hana kēia e hiki ke kōkua," wahi a Powell. "No ke aha ʻoe e ʻōlelo ai ʻaʻole hiki iā mākou ke hoʻohana i kēia mea hana? Hiki iā mākou ke hoʻohana i ka screwdriver Phillips, akā ʻaʻole ka screwdriver maʻamau, a ʻo ka hope?"
I ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ʻOkakopa 2018, ua hele pū wau me Powell i kahi kahua māla mālie ma ka hema o Syracuse. Ua manaʻolana ʻo ia e ulu ka wā e hiki mai ana o nā ʻano chestnut ʻAmelika. Ua aneane neoneo ka wahi, a ʻo ia kekahi o nā wahi kakaikahi e ʻae ʻia ai nā lāʻau e ulu. ʻO nā māla paina kiʻekiʻe a me ka larch, ka huahana o kahi papahana noiʻi i haʻalele ʻia no ka manawa lōʻihi, ke kūlou nei i ka hikina, mai ka makani e kū nei, e hāʻawi ana i kahi ʻano weliweli iki.
Ke hana nei ʻo Andrew Newhouse, ka mea noiʻi ma ke keʻena hoʻokolohua o Powell, i kekahi o nā lāʻau maikaʻi loa no nā kānaka ʻepekema, he chestnut hihiu mai ka hema o Virginia. He 25 kapuaʻi ke kiʻekiʻe o ke kumulāʻau a ulu i loko o kahi māla chestnut i hoʻonohonoho pono ʻole ʻia a puni ʻia e kahi pā dia he 10 kapuaʻi ke kiʻekiʻe. Ua nakinaki ʻia ka ʻeke kula i nā wēlau o kekahi mau lālā o ka lāʻau. Ua wehewehe ʻo Newhouse ua paʻa ka ʻeke plastik o loko i loko o ka pollen Darling 58 i noi ʻia e nā kānaka ʻepekema i Iune, ʻoiai ʻo ka ʻeke metala metala waho e mālama i nā squirrels mai ka ulu ʻana o nā burrs. Aia ka hoʻonohonoho holoʻokoʻa ma lalo o ka nānā pono ʻana e ka ʻOihana Mahiʻai o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa; ma mua o ka deregulation, pono e hoʻokaʻawale ʻia ka pollen a i ʻole nā ​​​​nati mai nā lāʻau me nā genes i hoʻohui ʻia i loko o ka pā a i ʻole i loko o ka keʻena hoʻokolohua o ka mea noiʻi.
Ua hoʻopunipuni ʻo Newhouse i nā ʻokiʻoki hiki ke huki ʻia ma nā lālā. Me ka huki ʻana me ke kaula, ua haki ka pahi a hāʻule ka ʻeke. Ua neʻe koke ʻo Newhouse i ka lālā ʻeke aʻe a hana hou i ke kaʻina hana. Ua hōʻiliʻili ʻo Powell i nā ʻeke hāʻule a waiho iā lākou i loko o kahi ʻeke ʻōpala plastik nui, e like me ka lawelawe ʻana i nā mea biohazardous.
Ma hope o ka hoʻi ʻana i ka hale hana, ua hoʻokahe ʻo Newhouse lāua ʻo Hannah Pilkey i ka ʻeke a huki koke i nā nati ʻeleʻele mai nā ʻūlū ʻōmaʻomaʻo. Mālama lākou ʻaʻole e komo nā kākalaioa i loko o ka ʻili, he mea weliweli ia i ka noiʻi chestnut. I ka wā ma mua, makemake lākou i nā nati makamae a pau i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics. I kēia manawa, ua loaʻa iā lākou ka nui: ʻoi aku ma mua o 1,000. "Ke hana nei mākou a pau i nā hula liʻiliʻi hauʻoli," wahi a Pirkey.
Ma hope o kēlā awakea, ua lawe ʻo Powell i nā nati i ke keʻena o Neil Patterson ma ka lobby. ʻO ia ka Lā o nā Kanaka ʻŌiwi (Columbus Day), a ua hoʻi mai ʻo Patterson, ke Hope Luna Hoʻokele o ke Kikowaena no nā Kanaka ʻŌiwi a me ke Kaiapuni o ESF, mai kahi hapaha o ke kahua kula, kahi āna i alakaʻi ai i kahi hōʻikeʻike meaʻai ʻōiwi. Ke pāʻani nei kāna mau keiki ʻelua a me kāna kaikamahine ma ke kamepiula ma ke keʻena. Ua ʻili a ʻai nā mea a pau i nā nati. "He ʻōmaʻomaʻo iki nō lākou," wahi a Powell me ke kaumaha.
He nui nā kumu o ka makana a Powell. Ke hāʻawi nei ʻo ia i nā hua, me ka manaʻolana e hoʻohana i ka pūnaewele ʻo Patterson e kanu i nā chestnuts ma nā wahi hou, kahi e hiki ai iā lākou ke loaʻa i ka pollen i hoʻololi ʻia i loko o kekahi mau makahiki. Ua komo pū ʻo ia i ka diplomasia chestnut dexterous.
I ka wā i hoʻolimalima ʻia ai ʻo Patterson e ESF i ka makahiki 2014, ua ʻike ʻo ia e hoʻokolohua ana ʻo Powell me nā lāʻau i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics, he mau mile wale nō ka mamao mai ka Onondaga Nation Resident Territory. Aia ka mea hope ma ka nahele he mau mile ma ka hema o Syracuse. Ua ʻike ʻo Patterson inā holomua ka papahana, e komo nā genes pale maʻi i ka ʻāina a hele pū me nā chestnuts i koe ma laila, a laila e hoʻololi ana i ka nahele he mea nui i ka ʻike o Onodaga. Ua lohe pū ʻo ia e pili ana i nā hopohopo e hoʻoikaika nei i nā mea hoʻoikaika, me kekahi poʻe mai nā kaiāulu ʻōiwi, e kūʻē i nā meaola i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics ma nā wahi ʻē aʻe. No ka laʻana, i ka makahiki 2015, ua pāpā ka ʻohana Yurok i nā mālama GMO ma Northern California ma muli o nā hopohopo e pili ana i ka hiki ke haumia i kāna mau mea kanu a me nā lawaiʻa salmon.
"Ua ʻike au ua hiki mai kēia iā mākou ma ʻaneʻi; pono mākou e kamaʻilio iki," wahi a Patterson iaʻu. Ma ka hālāwai o ka Environmental Protection Agency 2015 i mālama ʻia e ESF, ua hāʻawi ʻo Powell i kahi haʻiʻōlelo i hoʻomaʻamaʻa maikaʻi ʻia i nā lālā o nā kānaka ʻōiwi o New York. Ma hope o ka haʻiʻōlelo, ua hoʻomanaʻo ʻo Patterson ua ʻōlelo kekahi mau alakaʻi: "Pono mākou e kanu i nā lāʻau!" Ua kāhāhā ko lākou hoihoi iā Patterson. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "ʻAʻole au i manaʻo."
Eia nō naʻe, ua hōʻike nā kamaʻilio ma hope aku he kakaikahi o lākou e hoʻomanaʻo maoli ana i ke kuleana o ka lāʻau chestnut i kāna moʻomeheu kuʻuna. Ua haʻi aku ka noiʻi hahai a Patterson iā ia i ka manawa e hana ʻia ana ka haunaele kaiaulu a me ka luku ʻana i ke kaiapuni i ka manawa like, ua hoʻokō ke aupuni US i kahi hoʻolālā demobilization a me ka hoʻohuihui nui ʻana, a ua hiki mai ke ahulau. E like me nā mea ʻē aʻe he nui, ua nalowale ka moʻomeheu chestnut kūloko ma ia wahi. Ua ʻike pū ʻo Patterson he ʻokoʻa loa nā manaʻo e pili ana i ka ʻenekinia genetic. Makemake nui ʻo Alfie Jacques, ka mea hana lāʻau lacrosse a Onoda, e hana i nā lāʻau mai ka lāʻau chestnut a kākoʻo i ka papahana. Manaʻo kekahi he nui loa ka pilikia a no laila kūʻē i nā lāʻau.
Hoʻomaopopo ʻo Patterson i kēia mau kūlana ʻelua. Ua ʻōlelo mai ʻo ia iaʻu i kēia mau lā aku nei: "Ua like ia me ke kelepona paʻalima a me kaʻu keiki." Ua kuhikuhi ʻo ia e hoʻi ana kāna keiki i ka home mai ke kula ma muli o ka maʻi ahulau coronavirus. "I kekahi lā ua hana wau i nā mea āpau; e hoʻomau i ka launa pū ʻana me lākou, ke aʻo nei lākou. I kekahi lā aʻe, e like me, e hoʻopau kākou i kēlā mau mea. " Akā, ua hoʻonāwaliwali nā makahiki o ke kamaʻilio ʻana me Powell i kona kānalua. ʻAʻole i liʻuliʻu aku nei, ua ʻike ʻo ia ʻaʻole e loaʻa i nā hua maʻamau o 58 mau lāʻau Darling nā genes i hoʻokomo ʻia, ʻo ia hoʻi, e hoʻomau ka ulu ʻana o nā chestnuts hihiu mua i ka nahele. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Patterson ua hoʻopau kēia i kahi pilikia nui.
I ko mākou kipa ʻana i ʻOkakopa, ua haʻi mai ʻo ia iaʻu ʻo ke kumu i hiki ʻole ai iā ia ke kākoʻo piha i ka papahana GM no ka mea ʻaʻole ʻo ia i ʻike inā mālama ʻo Powell i ka poʻe e launa pū ana me ka lāʻau a i ʻole ka lāʻau. "ʻAʻole au i ʻike i ka mea nona," wahi a Patterson, me ke kuʻi ʻana i kona umauma. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia inā hiki ke hoʻihoʻi ʻia ka pilina ma waena o ke kanaka a me ka chestnut, pono e loaʻa hou kēia lāʻau.
No kēia kumu, ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia e hoʻolālā ana ʻo ia e hoʻohana i nā nati a Powell i hāʻawi aku ai iā ia e hana i ka pudding chestnut a me ka ʻaila. E lawe mai ʻo ia i kēia mau kīʻaha i ka ʻāina ʻo Onondaga a kono i nā kānaka e ʻike hou i ko lākou mau ʻono kahiko. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo ia: "Ke lana nei koʻu manaʻo, ua like ia me ke aloha ʻana aku i kahi hoaaloha kahiko. Pono ʻoe e kau i luna o ke kaʻa mai kahi āu i kū ai i ka manawa hope loa."
Ua loaʻa iā Powell kahi makana he $3.2 miliona mai ka Templeton World Charity Foundation i Ianuali, kahi e ʻae ai iā Powell e neʻe i mua i kona hoʻokele ʻana i nā keʻena hoʻoponopono a hoʻonui i kāna noiʻi mai ka genetics a i ka ʻoiaʻiʻo maoli o ka hoʻoponopono ʻāina holoʻokoʻa. Inā hāʻawi ke aupuni iā ​​​​ia i kahi hoʻomaikaʻi, e hoʻomaka ʻo Powell a me nā kānaka ʻepekema mai ka American Chestnut Foundation e ʻae iā ia e pua. E puhi ʻia ka pollen a me kāna mau genes keu ma luna o nā ipu kali o nā lāʻau ʻē aʻe, a e wehe ʻia ka hopena o nā chestnuts i hoʻololi ʻia i ka genetics me ke kūʻokoʻa o ke kaiapuni hoʻokolohua i kāohi ʻia. Ke manaʻo nei hiki ke mālama ʻia ka gene ma ke kula a ma ka hale hana, ʻaʻole maopopo kēia, a e pālahalaha ia ma ka nahele - he kiko kaiaola kēia a nā kānaka ʻepekema e makemake ai akā makaʻu nā radical.
Ma hope o ka hoʻomaha ʻana o kahi lāʻau chestnut, hiki iā ʻoe ke kūʻai i hoʻokahi? ʻAe, wahi a Newhouse, ʻo ia ka hoʻolālā. Ua nīnau ʻia nā mea noiʻi i kēlā me kēia pule i ka wā e loaʻa ai nā lāʻau.
Ma ke ao e noho nei ʻo Powell, Newhouse a me kāna mau hoa hana, he mea maʻalahi ke manaʻo e kali ana ka ʻāina holoʻokoʻa i kā lākou lāʻau. Eia nō naʻe, ʻo ka hoʻokele ʻana i kahi mamao pōkole mai ka mahiʻai noiʻi ma waena o ke kikowaena o Syracuse he mea hoʻomanaʻo ia i ke ʻano o nā loli nui i hana ʻia i ke kaiapuni a me ke kaiāulu mai ka nalowale ʻana o nā chestnuts ʻAmelika. Aia ʻo Chestnut Heights Drive ma kahi kūlanakauhale liʻiliʻi ma ka ʻākau o Syracuse. He alanui noho maʻamau me nā ala kaʻa ākea, nā lau nahele maikaʻi, a i kekahi manawa he mau lāʻau hoʻonaninani liʻiliʻi i hoʻonani ʻia me ka pā mua. . ʻAʻole koi ka ʻoihana lāʻau i ka hoʻōla hou ʻana o nā chestnuts. Ua nalowale loa ka hoʻokele waiwai mahiʻai ponoʻī e pili ana i nā chestnuts. ʻAneʻane ʻaʻohe mea e unuhi i nā nati palupalu a momona mai nā burrs paʻakikī loa. ʻAʻole paha ka hapa nui o ka poʻe i ʻike ʻaʻohe mea i nalowale i ka nahele.
Ua kū au a ua ʻai au i kahi pāʻina pikiniki ma ka loko ʻo Onondaga ma lalo o ka malu o ke kumulāʻau lehu keʻokeʻo nui. Ua piha ka lāʻau i nā borers hina ʻōmaʻomaʻo ʻālohilohi. Hiki iaʻu ke ʻike i nā lua i hana ʻia e nā pepeke i loko o ka ʻili lāʻau. Hoʻomaka ia e nalowale kona mau lau a make paha a hiolo i kekahi mau makahiki ma hope. I koʻu hele ʻana mai i ʻaneʻi mai koʻu home ma Maryland, ua kalaiwa au ma mua o nā tausani o nā kumulāʻau lehu make, me nā lālā pitchfork ʻōlohelohe e kū aʻe ana ma ka ʻaoʻao o ke alanui.
Ma Appalachia, ua ʻohi ka hui i nā lāʻau mai kahi ʻāina nui o Bitlahua e loaʻa ai ka lanahu ma lalo. Ua kūlike ka puʻuwai o ka ʻāina lanahu me ka puʻuwai o ka ʻāina chestnut mua. Ua hana pū ka American Chestnut Foundation me nā hui i kanu i nā lāʻau ma nā lua lanahu i haʻalele ʻia, a ke ulu nei nā lāʻau chestnut ma nā tausani ʻeka o ka ʻāina i hoʻopilikia ʻia e ka pōʻino. He ʻāpana wale nō kēia mau lāʻau o nā hybrids i kū i ka palaho bacteria, akā hiki iā lākou ke lilo i like me kahi hanauna hou o nā lāʻau e hiki ai i kekahi lā ke hoʻokūkū me nā pilikua ululāʻau kahiko.
I Mei i hala, ua hōʻea ka nui o ke kalapona ʻokikene i ka lewa i 414.8 ʻāpana no ka miliona no ka manawa mua. E like me nā lāʻau ʻē aʻe, ʻo ke kaumaha wai ʻole o nā chestnuts ʻAmelika ma kahi o ka hapalua o ke kalapona. He kakaikahi nā mea hiki iā ʻoe ke ulu ma kahi ʻāina e hiki ke omo i ke kalapona mai ka lewa ma mua o kahi lāʻau chestnut e ulu ana. Me kēia ma ka noʻonoʻo, ua manaʻo ʻia kahi ʻatikala i paʻi ʻia ma ka Wall Street Journal i ka makahiki i hala, "E loaʻa iā kākou kahi mahiʻai chestnut ʻē aʻe."