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He mea haumia meaʻai i ʻike ʻia ʻo Melamine i loaʻa paha i kekahi mau ʻano meaʻai ma ke ʻano ulia a me ka manaʻo. ʻO ka pahuhopu o kēia haʻawina, ʻo ia ke hōʻoia i ka ʻike ʻana a me ka helu ʻana o ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka pauka waiū. Ua kālailai ʻia he 40 mau laʻana meaʻai i loaʻa ma ke kālepa, me ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka pauka waiū, mai nā wahi like ʻole o Iran. Ua hoʻoholo ʻia ka nui o ka melamine o nā laʻana me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi ʻōnaehana chromatography-ultraviolet wai hana kiʻekiʻe (HPLC-UV). Ua kūkulu ʻia kahi piʻo calibration (R2 = 0.9925) no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine ma ka pae o 0.1–1.2 μg mL−1. ʻO nā palena o ka helu ʻana a me ka ʻike ʻana he 1 μg mL−1 a me 3 μg mL−1, kēlā me kēia. Ua hoʻāʻo ʻia ʻo Melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka pauka waiū a ua hōʻike nā hopena he 0.001–0.095 mg kg−1 a me 0.001–0.004 mg kg−1 nā pae melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka pauka waiū, kēlā me kēia. Kūlike kēia mau waiwai me ke kānāwai o EU a me ka Codex Alimentarius. He mea nui e hoʻomaopopo ʻaʻole ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia mau huahana waiū me ka melamine i hoʻemi ʻia he pilikia nui i ke olakino o ka mea kūʻai. Kākoʻo ʻia kēia e nā hopena o ka loiloi pilikia.
He hui organik ʻo Melamine me ke ʻano molekala C3H6N6, i loaʻa mai ka cyanamide. He haʻahaʻa loa kona solubility i ka wai a ma kahi o 66% nitrogen. He hui ʻoihana i hoʻohana nui ʻia ʻo Melamine me nā ʻano hoʻohana kūpono i ka hana ʻana i nā plastics, nā mea hoʻouluulu, a me nā lako hana meaʻai (me ka ʻōpala meaʻai a me nā lako kīhini)1,2. Hoʻohana ʻia ʻo Melamine ma ke ʻano he mea lawe lāʻau no ka mālama ʻana i nā maʻi. ʻO ka nui o ka nitrogen i loko o ka melamine hiki ke alakaʻi i ka hoʻohana pono ʻole ʻana i ka hui a me ka hāʻawi ʻana i nā waiwai o nā molekala protein i nā meaʻai meaʻai3,4. No laila, ʻo ka hoʻohui ʻana i ka melamine i nā huahana meaʻai, me nā huahana waiū, e hoʻonui i ka nui o ka nitrogen. No laila, ua hoʻoholo hewa ʻia ua ʻoi aku ka nui o ka protein o ka waiū ma mua o ka mea maoli.
No kēlā me kēia gram o ka melamine i hoʻohui ʻia, e piʻi ka nui o ka protein o ka meaʻai ma ka 0.4%. Eia nō naʻe, he mea hoʻoheheʻe loa ka melamine i ka wai a hiki ke hana i kahi pōʻino koʻikoʻi. ʻO ka hoʻohui ʻana i 1.3 gram o ka melamine i nā huahana wai e like me ka waiū hiki ke hoʻonui i ka nui o ka protein o ka waiū ma ka 30%5,6. ʻOiai ua hoʻohui ʻia ka melamine i nā meaʻai holoholona a me nā meaʻai kanaka e hoʻonui i ka nui o ka protein7, ʻaʻole i ʻae ka Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) a me nā luna aupuni i ka melamine ma ke ʻano he mea hoʻohui meaʻai a ua helu iā ia he mea weliweli inā moni ʻia, hanu ʻia, a omo ʻia paha ma o ka ʻili. I ka makahiki 2012, ua helu ka World Health Organization's (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer i ka melamine ma ke ʻano he carcinogen Class 2B no ka mea he mea hōʻino paha ia i ke olakino kanaka8. ʻO ka hōʻike lōʻihi ʻana i ka melamine e hōʻeha i ka maʻi kanesa a i ʻole ka puʻupaʻa2. Hiki i ka Melamine i loko o ka meaʻai ke hui pū me ka cyanuric acid e hana i nā kristal melemele hiki ʻole ke hoʻoheheʻe ʻia i ka wai e hiki ai ke hōʻino i nā puʻupaʻa a me ka ʻiʻo mimi, a me ke kanesa o ke ala mimi a me ka pohō kaumaha9,10. Hiki iā ia ke hoʻoulu i ka lāʻau make koke a, i nā nui kiʻekiʻe, ka make, ʻoi aku hoʻi i nā pēpē a me nā keiki liʻiliʻi.11 Ua hoʻonohonoho pū ka World Health Organization (WHO) i ka lawe ʻana i kēlā me kēia lā (TDI) o ka melamine no ke kanaka ma 0.2 mg/kg ke kaumaha o ke kino i kēlā me kēia lā ma muli o nā alakaʻi CAC.12 Ua hoʻonohonoho ka US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) i ka pae koena kiʻekiʻe loa no ka melamine ma 1 mg/kg i loko o ka waiū pēpē a me 2.5 mg/kg i nā meaʻai ʻē aʻe.2,7 I Kepakemapa 2008, ua hōʻike ʻia ua hoʻohui kekahi mau mea hana waiū pēpē kūloko i ka melamine i ka pauka waiū e hoʻonui i ka nui o ka protein o kā lākou huahana, e hopena ana i ka lāʻau make pauka waiū a hoʻoulu i kahi hanana lāʻau make melamine ma ka ʻāina holoʻokoʻa i maʻi ma mua o 294,000 mau keiki a hoʻokomo ʻia ma ka haukapila ma mua o 50,000. 13
ʻAʻole hiki ke hānai waiū i nā manawa a pau ma muli o nā kumu like ʻole e like me nā pilikia o ke ola kūlanakauhale, ka maʻi o ka makuahine a i ʻole ke keiki, kahi e alakaʻi ai i ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka waiū waiū pēpē e hānai i nā pēpē. ʻO ka hopena, ua hoʻokumu ʻia nā hale hana e hana i ka waiū waiū pēpē e like me ka hiki ke hiki i ka waiū umauma i ke ʻano14. ʻO ka waiū waiū pēpē i kūʻai ʻia ma ka mākeke e hana pinepine ʻia mai ka waiū bipi a hana pinepine ʻia me kahi hui kūikawā o nā momona, nā protein, nā carbohydrates, nā huaora, nā minelala a me nā hui ʻē aʻe. I mea e kokoke ai i ka waiū umauma, ʻokoʻa ka nui o ka protein a me ka momona o ka waiū waiū, a ma muli o ke ʻano o ka waiū, ua hoʻoikaika ʻia lākou me nā hui e like me nā huaora a me nā minelala e like me ka hao15. ʻOiai he hui koʻikoʻi nā pēpē a aia kahi pilikia o ka lāʻau make, ʻo ka palekana o ka pauka waiū pauka he mea nui loa ia i ke olakino. Ma hope o ka hihia lāʻau make melamine i waena o nā pēpē Kina, ua nānā pono nā ʻāina a puni ka honua i kēia pilikia, a ua piʻi pū ka ʻike o kēia wahi. No laila, he mea nui loa ia e hoʻoikaika i ka kaohi ʻana i ka hana ʻana i ka waiū waiū pēpē i mea e pale ai i ke olakino o nā pēpē. Aia nā ʻano hana like ʻole no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine i ka meaʻai, me ka chromatography wai hana kiʻekiʻe (HPLC), electrophoresis, sensory method, spectrophotometry a me ka antigen-antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay16. I ka makahiki 2007, ua hoʻomohala a paʻi ka US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) i kahi ʻano hana HPLC no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine a me ka cyanuric acid i ka meaʻai, ʻo ia ke ʻano hana kūpono loa no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka ʻike melamine17.
ʻO ka nui o ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē i ana ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi ʻenehana spectroscopy infrared hou mai 0.33 a 0.96 milligrams no ke kilokani (mg kg-1). 18 Ua ʻike ʻia kahi noiʻi ma Sri Lanka he mau pae melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū holoʻokoʻa mai 0.39 a 0.84 mg kg-1. Eia kekahi, ʻo nā laʻana waiū waiū pēpē i lawe ʻia mai nā mea i loaʻa nā pae kiʻekiʻe loa o ka melamine, ma 0.96 a me 0.94 mg/kg. Aia kēia mau pae ma lalo o ka palena hoʻoponopono (1 mg/kg), akā pono kahi papahana nānā no ka palekana o ka mea kūʻai. 19
Ua nānā kekahi mau noiʻi i nā pae o ka melamine i loko o nā waiū pēpē Iranian. Ma kahi o 65% o nā laʻana i loaʻa ka melamine, me ka awelika o 0.73 mg/kg a me ka nui o 3.63 mg/kg. Ua hōʻike kekahi noiʻi ʻē aʻe ʻo ka pae o ka melamine i loko o ka waiū pēpē mai 0.35 a 3.40 μg/kg, me ka awelika o 1.38 μg/kg. Ma keʻano holoʻokoʻa, ua loiloi ʻia ke alo a me ka pae o ka melamine i loko o nā waiū pēpē Iranian i nā noiʻi like ʻole, me kekahi mau laʻana i loaʻa ka melamine i ʻoi aku ma mua o ka palena kiʻekiʻe i hoʻonohonoho ʻia e nā luna hoʻoponopono (2.5 mg/kg/hānai).
Ke noʻonoʻo nei i ka nui o ka hoʻohana pololei a me ka ʻole pololei o ka pauka waiū i ka ʻoihana meaʻai a me ke koʻikoʻi kūikawā o ka waiū waiū pēpē i ka hānai ʻana i nā keiki, ua manaʻo kēia haʻawina e hōʻoia i ke ʻano ʻike o ka melamine i loko o ka waiū pauka a me ka waiū waiū pēpē. ʻO ka ʻoiaʻiʻo, ʻo ka pahuhopu mua o kēia haʻawina, ʻo ia ka hoʻomohala ʻana i kahi ʻano hana wikiwiki, maʻalahi a pololei hoʻi no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine adulteration i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka waiū pauka me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka chromatography wai hana kiʻekiʻe (HPLC) a me ka ʻike ultraviolet (UV); ʻO ka lua, ʻo ka pahuhopu o kēia haʻawina, ʻo ia ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka nui o ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka waiū pauka i kūʻai ʻia ma ka mākeke Iranian.
ʻOkoʻa nā mea hana i hoʻohana ʻia no ka loiloi melamine ma muli o ka wahi hana meaʻai. Ua hoʻohana ʻia kahi ʻano loiloi HPLC-UV koʻikoʻi a hilinaʻi hoʻi e ana i nā koena melamine i loko o ka waiū a me ka waiū waiū pēpē. Loaʻa i nā huahana waiū nā ʻano protein a me nā momona like ʻole e hoʻopilikia i ke ana ʻana o ka melamine. No laila, e like me ka mea i ʻōlelo ʻia e Sun et al. 22, pono kahi hoʻolālā hoʻomaʻemaʻe kūpono a maikaʻi hoʻi ma mua o ka loiloi mea hana. Ma kēia haʻawina, ua hoʻohana mākou i nā kānana syringe hoʻolei. Ma kēia haʻawina, ua hoʻohana mākou i kahi kolamu C18 e hoʻokaʻawale i ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē a me ka pauka waiū. Hōʻike ka Kiʻi 1 i ka chromatogram no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine. Eia kekahi, ʻo ka hoʻihoʻi ʻana o nā laʻana i loaʻa ka 0.1-1.2 mg/kg melamine mai 95% a 109%, ʻo ka hoʻohālikelike regression ʻo y = 1.2487x − 0.005 (r = 0.9925), a ʻo nā waiwai standard deviation (RSD) pili mai 0.8 a 2%. Hōʻike ka ʻikepili i loaʻa he hilinaʻi ke ʻano ma ka pae concentration i aʻo ʻia (Papa 1). ʻO ka palena ʻike instrumental (LOD) a me ka palena o ka helu ʻana (LOQ) o ka melamine he 1 μg mL−1 a me 3 μg mL−1, kēlā me kēia. Eia kekahi, ua hōʻike ka spectrum UV o ka melamine i kahi kāʻei omo ma 242 nm. He ʻano koʻikoʻi, hilinaʻi a pololei hoʻi ke ʻano ʻike. Hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia kēia ʻano no ka hoʻoholo maʻamau o ka pae melamine.
Ua paʻi ʻia nā hopena like e kekahi mau mea kākau. Ua hoʻomohala ʻia kahi ʻano hana chromatography-photodiode array (HPLC) hana kiʻekiʻe no ka nānā ʻana i ka melamine i loko o nā huahana waiū. ʻO nā palena haʻahaʻa o ka helu ʻana he 340 μg kg−1 no ka pauka waiū a me 280 μg kg−1 no ka waiū waiū pēpē ma 240 nm. Ua hōʻike ʻo Filazzi et al. (2012) ʻaʻole i ʻike ʻia ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē e HPLC. Eia nō naʻe, 8% o nā laʻana pauka waiū i loaʻa ka melamine ma kahi pae o 0.505–0.86 mg/kg. Ua hana ʻo Tittlemiet et al.23 i kahi noiʻi like a ua hoʻoholo i ka ʻike melamine o ka waiū waiū pēpē (helu laʻana: 72) e ka chromatography-mass spectrometry/MS hana kiʻekiʻe (HPLC-MS/MS) ma kahi o 0.0431–0.346 mg kg−1. Ma kahi noiʻi i mālama ʻia e Venkatasamy et al. (2010), ua hoʻohana ʻia kahi ʻano kemika ʻōmaʻomaʻo (me ka ʻole o ka acetonitrile) a me ka reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) e kuhi i ka melamine i loko o ka waiū pēpē a me ka waiū. ʻO ka pae o ka nui o ka laʻana mai 1.0 a 80 g/mL a ʻo ka pane he linear (r > 0.999). Ua hōʻike ke ʻano hana i nā hoʻōla hou ʻana o 97.2–101.2 ma luna o ka pae o ka nui o 5–40 g/mL a ʻo ka reproducibility he emi ma mua o 1.0% ka ʻokoʻa maʻamau. Eia kekahi, ʻo ka LOD a me LOQ i ʻike ʻia he 0.1 g mL−1 a me 0.2 g mL−124, kēlā me kēia. Ua hoʻoholo ʻo Lutter et al. (2011) i ka haumia melamine i loko o ka waiū bipi a me ka waiū pēpē i hoʻokumu ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka HPLC-UV. ʻO ka nui o ka melamine mai < 0.2 a 2.52 mg kg−1. ʻO ka laulā dinamika linear o ke ʻano HPLC-UV he 0.05 a 2.5 mg kg−1 no ka waiū bipi, 0.13 a 6.25 mg kg−1 no ka waiū pēpē me ka hapa nui o ka protein o <15%, a me 0.25 a 12.5 mg kg−1 no ka waiū pēpē me ka hapa nui o ka protein o 15%. ʻO nā hopena LOD (a me LOQ) he 0.03 mg kg−1 (0.09 mg kg−1) no ka waiū bipi, 0.06 mg kg−1 (0.18 mg kg−1) no ka waiū pēpē <15% protein, a me 0.12 mg kg−1 (0.36 mg kg−1) no ka waiū pēpē 15% protein, me ka lakio signal-to-noise o 3 a me 1025 no LOD a me LOQ, kēlā me kēia. Ua noiʻi ʻo Diebes et al. (2012) i nā pae melamine i loko o ka waiū pēpē a me nā laʻana pauka waiū me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka HPLC/DMD. I loko o ka waiū pēpē, ʻo nā pae haʻahaʻa loa a me ke kiʻekiʻe loa he 9.49 mg kg−1 a me 258 mg kg−1, kēlā me kēia. ʻO ka palena o ka ʻike ʻana (LOD) he 0.05 mg kg−1.
Ua hōʻike ʻo Javaid et al. aia nā koena melamine i loko o ka waiū pēpē ma ka pae o 0.002–2 mg kg−1 e ka Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-MIR) (LOD = 1 mg kg−1; LOQ = 3.5 mg kg−1). Ua hāpai ʻo Rezai et al.27 i kahi ʻano hana HPLC-DDA (λ = 220 nm) e kuhi i ka melamine a ua hoʻokō i kahi LOQ o 0.08 μg mL−1 no ka pauka waiū, ʻoi aku ka haʻahaʻa ma mua o ka pae i loaʻa ma kēia haʻawina. Ua hoʻomohala ʻo Sun et al. i kahi RP-HPLC-DAD no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine i loko o ka waiū wai ma o ka unuhi ʻana i ka pae paʻa (SPE). Ua loaʻa iā lākou kahi LOD a me LOQ o 18 a me 60 μg kg−128, kēlā me kēia, ʻoi aku ka naʻau ma mua o ke aʻo ʻana o kēia manawa. ʻO Montesano et al. ua hōʻoia i ka pono o ke ʻano HPLC-DMD no ka loiloi ʻana i ka ʻike melamine i loko o nā mea hoʻohui protein me ka palena o ka helu ʻana o 0.05-3 mg/kg, kahi i emi iki ka naʻau ma mua o ke ʻano i hoʻohana ʻia ma kēia noiʻi29.
ʻOiaʻiʻo, he kuleana koʻikoʻi ko nā keʻena hoʻokolohua loiloi i ka pale ʻana i ke kaiapuni ma o ka nānā ʻana i nā mea haumia i nā laʻana like ʻole. Eia nō naʻe, ʻo ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka nui o nā reagents a me nā solvents i ka wā o ka loiloi e hopena i ka hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana o nā koena weliweli. No laila, ua hoʻomohala ʻia ka kemika loiloi ʻōmaʻomaʻo (GAC) i ka makahiki 2000 e hōʻemi a hoʻopau paha i nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole o nā kaʻina hana loiloi i nā mea hana a me ke kaiapuni26. Ua hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻano ʻike melamine kuʻuna e like me ka chromatography, electrophoresis, capillary electrophoresis, a me ka enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) e ʻike i ka melamine. Eia nō naʻe, ma waena o nā ʻano ʻike he nui, ua huki nui nā sensor electrochemical i ka nānā ma muli o ko lākou ʻike maikaʻi loa, koho, manawa loiloi wikiwiki, a me nā ʻano maʻalahi hoʻohana30,31. Hoʻohana ka nanotechnology ʻōmaʻomaʻo i nā ala olaola e synthesize i nā nanomaterials, hiki ke hōʻemi i ka hana ʻana o nā ʻōpala weliweli a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ikehu, no laila e paipai ana i ka hoʻokō ʻana i nā hana hoʻomau. ʻO nā nanocomposites, no ka laʻana, i hana ʻia mai nā mea pili i ke kaiapuni, hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia i nā biosensors e ʻike i nā mea e like me melamine32,33,34.
Ua hōʻike ʻia ma ke aʻo ʻana ua hoʻohana pono ʻia ka solid-phase microextraction (SPME) ma muli o kona ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka ikehu a me ke kūpaʻa ʻana i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā ʻano unuhi kuʻuna. ʻO ke aloha kaiapuni a me ka pono o ka ikehu o SPME e lilo ia i mea koho maikaʻi loa i nā ʻano unuhi kuʻuna i ka kemika analytical a hāʻawi i kahi ʻano hana hoʻomau a maikaʻi hoʻi no ka hoʻomākaukau ʻana i ka laʻana35.
I ka makahiki 2013, ua hoʻomohala ʻo Wu et al. i kahi biosensor resonance plasmon surface koʻikoʻi a koho nui ʻia (mini-SPR) e hoʻohana ana i ka hui ʻana ma waena o ka melamine a me nā antibodies anti-melamine e ʻike koke i ka melamine i loko o ka waiū pēpē me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi immunoassay. ʻO ka biosensor SPR i hui pū ʻia me kahi immunoassay (me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka melamine-conjugated bovine serum albumin) he ʻenehana maʻalahi e hoʻohana a haʻahaʻa ke kumukūʻai me ka palena ʻike o 0.02 μg mL-136 wale nō.
Ua hoʻohana ʻo Nasiri lāua ʻo Abbasian i kahi sensor lawe lima kiʻekiʻe me ka hui pū ʻana me nā graphene oxide-chitosan composites (GOCS) e ʻike i ka melamine i nā laʻana kalepa37. Ua hōʻike kēia ʻano hana i ke koho kiʻekiʻe loa, ka pololei, a me ka pane. Ua hōʻike ka sensor GOCS i ka ʻike kupaianaha (239.1 μM−1), kahi laina linear o 0.01 a 200 μM, kahi kūlike o 1.73 × 104, a me kahi LOD a hiki i ka 10 nM. Eia kekahi, ua lawe kahi noiʻi i hana ʻia e Chandrasekhar et al. i ka makahiki 2024 i kahi ala eco-friendly a me ke kumukūʻai kūpono. Ua hoʻohana lākou i ka ʻili papaya ma ke ʻano he mea hoʻemi e synthesize i nā nanoparticles zinc oxide (ZnO-NPs) ma ke ʻano eco-friendly. Ma hope mai, ua hoʻomohala ʻia kahi ʻano spectroscopy micro-Raman kū hoʻokahi no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine i loko o ka formula pēpē. Ua hōʻike ʻia nā ZnO-NP i loaʻa mai ka ʻōpala mahiʻai i ka hiki ke lilo i mea hana diagnostic waiwai nui a me kahi ʻenehana hilinaʻi a haʻahaʻa ke kumukūʻai no ka nānā ʻana a me ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine38.
Ua hoʻohana ʻo Alizadeh et al. (2024) i kahi kahua fluorescence metal-organic framework (MOF) koʻikoʻi loa e hoʻoholo ai i ka melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū. ʻO ka laulā linear a me ka palena ʻike haʻahaʻa o ka sensor, i hoʻoholo ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka 3σ/S, he 40 a 396.45 nM (like me 25 μg kg−1 a i 0.25 mg kg−1) a me 40 nM (like me 25 μg kg−1), kēlā me kēia. Aia kēia laulā ma lalo loa o nā pae koena kiʻekiʻe loa (MRLs) i hoʻonohonoho ʻia no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine i loko o ka formula pēpē (1 mg kg−1) a me nā laʻana meaʻai/hānai ʻē aʻe (2.5 mg kg−1). Ua hōʻike ka sensor fluorescent (terbium (Tb)@NH2-MIL-253(Al)MOF) i ka pololei kiʻekiʻe a me ka hiki ke ana pololei ma mua o HPLC39 i ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū. ʻAʻole wale nā ​​​​​​biosensors a me nā nanocomposites i loko o ka kemika ʻōmaʻomaʻo e hoʻonui i nā hiki ke ʻike akā e hoʻemi pū i nā pōʻino o ke kaiapuni e like me nā loina hoʻomohala hoʻomau.
Ua hoʻopili ʻia nā loina kemika ʻōmaʻomaʻo i nā ʻano hana like ʻole no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine. ʻO kekahi ala e hoʻomohala ai i kahi ʻano microextraction solid-phase dispersive ʻōmaʻomaʻo me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka polymer polar kūlohelohe β-cyclodextrin cross-linked me ka waikawa citric no ka unuhi pono ʻana o ka melamine 40 mai nā laʻana e like me ka formula pēpē a me ka wai wela. Hoʻohana kekahi ʻano hana i ka hopena Mannich no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine i loko o nā laʻana waiū. He ʻano kūʻai ʻole kēia ʻano hana, pili i ke kaiapuni, a pololei loa me kahi laina linear o 0.1-2.5 ppm a me kahi palena ʻike haʻahaʻa 41. Eia kekahi, ua hoʻomohala ʻia kahi ʻano hana kūpono a pili i ke kaiapuni no ka hoʻoholo quantitative o ka melamine i loko o ka waiū wai a me ka formula pēpē me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka spectroscopy hoʻoili infrared Fourier transform me ka pololei kiʻekiʻe a me nā palena ʻike o 1 ppm a me 3.5 ppm, kēlā me kēia 42. Hōʻike kēia mau ʻano hana i ka hoʻopili ʻana o nā loina kemika ʻōmaʻomaʻo i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā ʻano hana kūpono a hoʻomau no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine.
Ua hāpai kekahi mau haʻawina i nā ʻano hana hou no ka ʻike ʻana i ka melamine, e like me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o ka pae paʻa a me ka chromatography wai hana kiʻekiʻe (HPLC)43, a me ka chromatography wai hana wikiwiki (HPLC), ʻaʻole pono ka mālama mua ʻana a i ʻole nā ​​​​​​reagents ion-pair paʻakikī, no laila e hōʻemi ana i ka nui o nā ʻōpala kemika44. ʻAʻole wale kēia mau ʻano hana e hāʻawi i nā hopena pololei no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine i nā huahana waiū, akā e kūlike pū me nā loina o ka kemika ʻōmaʻomaʻo, e hoʻemi ana i ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā kemika weliweli a me ka hōʻemi ʻana i ka hopena o ke kaiapuni holoʻokoʻa o ke kaʻina hana loiloi.
Ua hoʻāʻo ʻia he kanahā mau laʻana o nā lama like ʻole ma ke ʻano ʻekolu, a ua hōʻike ʻia nā hopena ma ka Papa 2. ʻO nā pae Melamine i loko o nā laʻana waiū pēpē a me ka pauka waiū mai 0.001 a 0.004 mg/kg a mai 0.001 a 0.095 mg/kg, kēlā me kēia. ʻAʻohe loli koʻikoʻi i ʻike ʻia ma waena o nā hui makahiki ʻekolu o ka waiū pēpē. Eia kekahi, ua ʻike ʻia ka melamine i loko o 80% o ka pauka waiū, akā ua haumia ka 65% o nā waiū pēpē me ka melamine.
ʻOi aku ke kiʻekiʻe o ka melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū ʻoihana ma mua o ka waiū waiū pēpē, a he koʻikoʻi ka ʻokoʻa (p<0.05) (Kiʻi 2).
ʻO nā hopena i loaʻa ma lalo o nā palena i hoʻonohonoho ʻia e ka FDA (ma lalo o 1 a me 2.5 mg/kg). Eia kekahi, ua kūlike nā hopena me nā palena i hoʻonohonoho ʻia e CAC (2010) a me ka EU45,46, ʻo ia hoʻi ka palena kiʻekiʻe loa i ʻae ʻia he 1 mg kg-1 no ka waiū pēpē a me 2.5 mg kg-1 no nā huahana waiū.
Wahi a kahi noiʻi i ka makahiki 2023 na Ghanati et al.47, ʻo ka nui o ka melamine i loko o nā ʻano waiū like ʻole i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma Iran mai 50.7 a 790 μg kg−1. ʻOi aku ka haʻahaʻa o kā lākou mau hopena ma mua o ka palena i ʻae ʻia e ka FDA. ʻOi aku ka haʻahaʻa o kā mākou mau hopena ma mua o Shoder et al.48 lāua ʻo Rima et al.49. Ua ʻike ʻo Shoder et al. (2010) ʻo nā pae melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū (n=49) i hoʻoholo ʻia e ELISA mai 0.5 a 5.5 mg/kg. Ua kālailai ʻo Rima et al. i nā koena melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū ma o ka fluorescence spectrophotometry a ua ʻike ʻia ʻo ka nui o ka melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū he 0.72–5.76 mg/kg. Ua hana ʻia kahi noiʻi ma Kanada i ka makahiki 2011 e nānā i nā pae melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē (n=94) me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka chromatography wai (LC/MS). Ua ʻike ʻia nā nui o ka melamine ma lalo o ka palena i ʻae ʻia (kūlana mua: 0.5 mg kg−1). ʻAʻole paha he hana hoʻopunipuni nā pae melamine i ʻike ʻia e hoʻonui ai i ka nui o ka protein. Eia nō naʻe, ʻaʻole hiki ke wehewehe ʻia e ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā mea hoʻouluulu, ka hoʻoneʻe ʻana i nā mea o loko o ka pahu, a i ʻole nā ​​​​mea like. Eia kekahi, ʻaʻole i hōʻike ʻia ke kumu o ka melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū i lawe ʻia mai i Kanada50.
Ua ana ʻo Hassani et al. i ka nui o ka melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū a me ka waiū wai ma ka mākeke Iranian i ka makahiki 2013 a ua loaʻa nā hopena like. Ua hōʻike nā hopena koe wale nō hoʻokahi lama o ka pauka waiū a me ka waiū wai, ua haumia nā laʻana ʻē aʻe a pau me ka melamine, me nā pae mai 1.50 a 30.32 μg g−1 i loko o ka pauka waiū a me 0.11 a 1.48 μg ml−1 i loko o ka waiū. ʻIke ʻia, ʻaʻole i ʻike ʻia ka waikawa cyanuric i loko o kekahi o nā laʻana, e hōʻemi ana i ka hiki ke make melamine no nā mea kūʻai. 51 Ua loiloi nā haʻawina mua i ka nui o ka melamine i loko o nā huahana kokoleka i loaʻa ka pauka waiū. Ma kahi o 94% o nā laʻana i lawe ʻia mai a me 77% o nā laʻana Iranian i loaʻa ka melamine. ʻO nā pae Melamine i loko o nā laʻana i lawe ʻia mai mai 0.032 a 2.692 mg/kg, ʻoiai ʻo nā mea i loko o nā laʻana Iranian mai 0.013 a 2.600 mg/kg. Ma keʻano holoʻokoʻa, ua ʻike ʻia ka melamine ma 85% o nā laʻana, akā hoʻokahi wale nō hōʻailona kikoʻī i loaʻa nā pae ma luna o ka palena i ʻae ʻia.44 Ua hōʻike ʻo Tittlemier et al. i nā pae melamine i loko o ka pauka waiū mai 0.00528 a i 0.0122 mg/kg.
Hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo ka Papa 3 i nā hopena loiloi pilikia no nā hui makahiki ʻekolu. ʻOi aku ka liʻiliʻi o ka pilikia ma mua o 1 ma nā hui makahiki āpau. No laila, ʻaʻohe pilikia olakino ʻaʻole carcinogenic mai ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū pēpē.
ʻO nā pae haʻahaʻa o ka haumia i loko o nā huahana waiū ma muli paha o ka haumia i manaʻo ʻole ʻia i ka wā hoʻomākaukau, ʻoiai ʻo nā pae kiʻekiʻe aʻe ma muli paha o nā hoʻohui i manaʻo ʻia. Eia kekahi, ʻo ka pilikia holoʻokoʻa i ke olakino kanaka mai ka ʻai ʻana i nā huahana waiū me nā pae melamine haʻahaʻa ua manaʻo ʻia he haʻahaʻa. Hiki ke hoʻoholo ʻia ʻo ka ʻai ʻana i nā huahana i loaʻa ia mau pae haʻahaʻa o ka melamine ʻaʻole ia e hoʻoweliweli i ke olakino o ka mea kūʻai52.
Ke noʻonoʻo nei i ke koʻikoʻi o ka hoʻokele palekana meaʻai i ka ʻoihana waiū, ʻoi aku hoʻi i ka pale ʻana i ke olakino lehulehu, he mea nui loa ia e hoʻomohala a hōʻoia i kahi ʻano hana no ka loiloi a me ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana i nā pae melamine a me nā koena i loko o ka pauka waiū a me ka waiū waiū. Ua hoʻomohala ʻia kahi ʻano hana spectrophotometric HPLC-UV maʻalahi a pololei no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū a me ka pauka waiū. Ua hōʻoia ʻia ke ʻano hana e hōʻoia i kona hilinaʻi a me ka pololei. Ua hōʻike ʻia nā palena ʻike a me ka helu ʻana o ke ʻano hana he lawa ka naʻau e ana i nā pae melamine i loko o ka waiū waiū a me ka pauka waiū. Wahi a kā mākou ʻikepili, ua ʻike ʻia ka melamine ma ka hapa nui o nā laʻana Iranian. ʻO nā pae melamine a pau i ʻike ʻia ma lalo o nā palena i ʻae ʻia e CAC, e hōʻike ana ʻaʻole ia he mea weliweli i ke olakino kanaka ka ʻai ʻana i kēia mau ʻano huahana waiū.
ʻO nā reagents kemika a pau i hoʻohana ʻia he papa analytical: melamine (2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazine) 99% maʻemaʻe (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO); HPLC-grade acetonitrile (Merck, Darmstadt, Kelemānia); wai ultrapure (Millipore, Morfheim, Palani). Nā kānana syringe hoʻolei (Chromafil Xtra PVDF-45/25, ka nui o ka pore 0.45 μm, ke anawaena membrane 25 mm) (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Kelemānia).
Ua hoʻohana ʻia kahi ʻauʻau ultrasonic (Elma, Kelemānia), kahi centrifuge (Beckman Coulter, Krefeld, Kelemānia) a me HPLC (KNAUER, Kelemānia) e hoʻomākaukau i nā laʻana.
Ua hoʻohana ʻia kahi chromatograph wai hana kiʻekiʻe (KNAUER, Kelemānia) i lako me kahi mea ʻike UV. ʻO nā kūlana loiloi HPLC penei: kahi ʻōnaehana UHPLC Ultimate i lako me kahi kolamu analytical ODS-3 C18 (4.6 mm × 250 mm, ka nui o ka ʻāpana 5 μm) (MZ, Kelemānia) i hoʻohana ʻia. ʻO ka eluent HPLC (pae mobile) he hui TFA/methanol (450:50 mL) me ka nui o ke kahe o 1 mL min-1. ʻO ka nalu ʻike he 242 nm. ʻO ka nui o ka injection he 100 μL, ʻo ka mahana o ke kolamu he 20 °C. No ka mea he lōʻihi ka manawa paʻa o ka lāʻau (15 mau minuke), pono e hana ʻia ka injection aʻe ma hope o 25 mau minuke. Ua ʻike ʻia ʻo Melamine ma ka hoʻohālikelike ʻana i ka manawa paʻa a me ka piko o ka spectrum UV o nā kūlana melamine.
Ua hoʻomākaukau ʻia kahi hopena maʻamau o ka melamine (10 μg/mL) me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka wai a mālama ʻia i loko o ka pahu hau (4 °C) ma kahi ʻē aʻe mai ka mālamalama. E hoʻoheheʻe i ka hopena waihona me ka pae mobile a hoʻomākaukau i nā hopena maʻamau hana. Ua hoʻokomo ʻia kēlā me kēia hopena maʻamau i loko o ka HPLC i 7 mau manawa. Ua helu ʻia ka hoʻohālikelike calibration 10 ma o ka loiloi regression o ka wahi piko i hoʻoholo ʻia a me ka nui i hoʻoholo ʻia.
Ua kūʻai ʻia ka pauka waiū bipi i loaʻa ma ke kālepa (20 mau laʻana) a me nā laʻana o nā ʻano like ʻole o ka waiū bipi i hana ʻia me ka waiū bipi (20 mau laʻana) mai nā hale kūʻai nui kūloko a me nā hale kūʻai lāʻau lapaʻau ma Iran no ka hānai ʻana i nā pēpē o nā hui makahiki like ʻole (0-6 mahina, 6-12 mahina, a me >12 mahina) a mālama ʻia ma ka mahana hau (4 °C) a hiki i ka nānā ʻana. A laila, ua kaupaona ʻia 1 ± 0.01 g o ka pauka waiū homogenized a ua hui pū ʻia me ka acetonitrile:wai (50:50, v/v; 5 mL). Ua hoʻoulu ʻia ka hui ʻana no 1 min, a laila sonicated i loko o kahi ʻauʻau ultrasonic no 30 min, a laila lulu ʻia no 1 min. A laila ua centrifuged ʻia ka hui ʻana ma 9000 × g no 10 min ma ka mahana o ka lumi a ua kānana ʻia ka supernatant i loko o kahi vial autosampler 2 ml me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi kānana syringe 0.45 μm. A laila ua hui pū ʻia ka filtrate (250 μl) me ka wai (750 μl) a ua hoʻokomo ʻia ma luna o ka ʻōnaehana HPLC10,42.
No ka hōʻoia ʻana i ke ʻano hana, ua hoʻoholo mākou i ka hoʻōla ʻana, ka pololei, ka palena o ka ʻike ʻana (LOD), ka palena o ka helu ʻana (LOQ), a me ka pololei ma lalo o nā kūlana kūpono. Ua wehewehe ʻia ka LOD ʻo ia ka ʻike laʻana me ke kiʻekiʻe kiʻekiʻe ʻekolu manawa o ka pae walaʻau kumu. Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, ua wehewehe ʻia ka ʻike laʻana me ke kiʻekiʻe kiʻekiʻe he 10 manawa o ka lakio signal-to-noise ʻo ia ka LOQ.
Ua hoʻoholo ʻia ka pane o ka hāmeʻa me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi piʻo calibration i loaʻa i ʻehiku mau kiko ʻikepili. Ua hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻano melamine like ʻole (0, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, 1 a me 1.2). Ua hoʻoholo ʻia ke ʻano linearity o ke kaʻina hana helu melamine. Eia kekahi, ua hoʻohui ʻia kekahi mau pae like ʻole o ka melamine i nā laʻana hakahaka. Ua kūkulu ʻia ke piʻo calibration ma ka hoʻokomo mau ʻana i ka 0.1-1.2 μg mL−1 o kahi hopena melamine maʻamau i loko o ka waiū formula pēpē a me nā laʻana waiū pauka a ʻo kona R2 = 0.9925. Ua loiloi ʻia ka pololei e ka hana hou ʻana a me ka hana hou ʻana o ke kaʻina hana a ua hoʻokō ʻia ma ka hoʻokomo ʻana i nā laʻana i nā lā mua a me ʻekolu ma hope (i ka triple). Ua loiloi ʻia ka hana hou ʻana o ke ʻano ma ka helu ʻana i ka RSD % no ʻekolu mau ʻano like ʻole o ka melamine i hoʻohui ʻia. Ua hana ʻia nā haʻawina hoʻōla e hoʻoholo i ka pololei. Ua helu ʻia ke kekelē o ka hoʻōla ʻana ma o ke ʻano unuhi ma ʻekolu pae o ka nui o ka melamine (0.1, 1.2, 2) i loko o nā laʻana o ka waiū pēpē a me ka waiū maloʻo9,11,15.
Ua hoʻoholo ʻia ka manaʻo o ka lawe ʻana i kēlā me kēia lā (EDI) me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia haʻilula: EDI = Ci × Cc/BW.
ʻO Ci ka awelika o ka nui o ka melamine, ʻo Cc ka waiū i hoʻopau ʻia a ʻo BW ka awelika o ke kaumaha o nā keiki.
Ua hana ʻia ka loiloi ʻikepili me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka SPSS 24. Ua hoʻāʻo ʻia ke ʻano maʻamau me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka hoʻāʻo Kolmogorov-Smirnov; he mau hoʻāʻo nonparametric nā ʻikepili āpau (p = 0). No laila, ua hoʻohana ʻia ka hoʻāʻo Kruskal-Wallis a me ka hoʻāʻo Mann-Whitney e hoʻoholo i nā ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi ma waena o nā hui.
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